In an effort to analyze the relationships between demographics and world commerce, we will focus our attention to several complex questions. How has the diffusion of ideas and technology impacted global commerce? What are the relationships among ideas, events, social climate and commerce? What future trends do you predict in regional demographics? How will these trends affect global commercial patterns? And lastly, what impact will thee commercial patterns have on the natural environment?

Diffusion is the process by which an idea or innovation is transmitted from one individual or group to another across space.

“Diffusion may assume a variety of forms, each different in its impact on social groups. Basically, however, two processes are involved: People move, for any of a number of reasons, to a new area and take their culture with them. And secondly, information about an innovation (e.g., hybrid corn or compact discs) may spread throughout a society, perhaps aided by local or mass media advertising; or new adopters of an ideology or way of life – for example, a new religious creed – may be inspired or recruited by immigrant or native converts. (Fellmann, J., Getis, A., & Getis, J.)

As we consider these two definitions, we can generalize and see exactly how diffusion along with technology has impacted world or global commerce. Process number one suggest that ideas and concepts of things are introduced from cultures during migration from one place to the other. While process number two suggest that information about things are spread through mass media inspired by the people. Technology today has aided society in ways completely unknown to man a little over a decade ago. Ideas from all different cultures have been brought together, analyzed and simplified. Some of the ideas introduced over the years have been adapted, some advanced, and some even credited towards the capitalization of technological advancements. Advancements in technology are rapidly evolving; evolving so fast that we have already simplified most forms of trading and commerce to “electronic transactions.” These such transactions happen almost instantaneously; making it so much easier for things to be done without the hassle of “pony express”, “snail mail” or any other, now less effective, means of conversion.

The relationships among ideas, events, social climate and commerce play important roles as to ensure the survival of society. All of these factors contribute to the efficacy of commerce. Ideas, such as innovations, simplified versions of technology; events such as bills, treaties and legislative measures; and social climate are all attributed to the inhibitions as well as the maintenance of commerce today.

Now lets take a look at demographics. Many demographic trends are quite easy to determine. This is due to the predictability of many demographic relationships. For example, if the birth rate increases during certain years (as indeed happened during the baby boom years), we can determine that there will be an increase in the demand for baby food and diapers in the very near future. (Wikipedia) Regional demograpics trends differ very little. Studies have shown that demographics, no matter what kind can be determined or estimated based on simple cause and effect strategies. Peter F. Drucker, author of article, “The Future That Has Already Happened,” suggest that “…it is pointless to try to predict the future, let alone attempt to look ahead 75 years. But in fact, it is possible to identify major events that have already happened, irrevocably, and that will have predictable effects in the next decade or two.” Research has suggested that the dominant factor for business in the next two decades – absent war,  pestilence, or collision with a comet – is not going to be economies or technology. It will be demographics. The key factors not being overpopulation of the world, but in fact the increasing underpopulation of the developed contries – Japan and the nations of Europe and North America. (Drucker) Statistics from the United States Census Bureau, support this rationalization by stating that in theUnited Statesalone, the number of birth, 2.4 or so per woman, is barely enough to maintain the current population now. Without the maintenance of the population, in my opinion, how are we to evolve? How will we be able to support a dominant world-economic power without the strength of a viable population base?

Demographics obviously plays an important role in the effect on global commerce, the real question is how? The trend of demographics show one of two options, the rise or global commerce or the fall of global commerce. Quite frankly, with current trends now, and technological advancements, global commerce will only get simpler, faster and more independent; but where does that leave the demographics view point. Well, with so many  modern advancements in technology, will people, figuratively speaking, be outsorced by robots? I don’t think so. “Knowledge is different from all other kinds of resources. It constantly makes itself obsolete, with the result that today’s advanced knowledge is tomorrow’s ignorance” (Drucker) All he seems to be suggesting is that demographics and global commerce go hand in hand. Even though advancements in innovations, ideas, social climate, technology, and so forth are inevitible, they all have to constantly evolve together to maintain the global commerce.

Commercial patterns are the same. Trends in demographics as well and world commerce will attribute itself to the trends of commercial patterns. Very little difference is seen with regards to the effects on commercial patterns. However, the impacts on global commerce, commercial patterns and demographics all play a significantly important role towards the natural environment. These roles include the overall success and or failure for that matter of the economy and the people that survive in it. Again in relation to the cause and effect strategy. It takes one thing to lead to another and visa versa, if this happened, it was a direct result of that happening.

Either way, it is and always will be believed that Demographics and World Commerce as a whole are key determinating factors to everyday living and the decisions, both business and non-business alike, that people face everyday. Without one the other can not happen. And evolution of these determining factors will only result in increased productivity with relation to World Commerce.

References

Census Bureau. U.S.Statistics. http://www.census.gov/.

Drucker, P. A Future That Has Already Happened: Harvard Business Review. EBSCOhost database.

Fellmann, J., Getis, A., & Getis, J. Human geography: Landscapes of human activities (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Wikipedia. Demographics. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics.

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Communication around the world has been changed forever by the emergence of satellite television. With the introduction in 1975 of cable-satellite in United States, television dominated by three national networks evolved into a multichannel system with a huge programme choice for the viewers. (Parsons)

However, “the concept of satellite communications was traced to a seminal 1945 article by science fiction author and engineer Arthur C. Clarke, in which he offered for the first time a published description of three strategically placed, manned space stations in geosynchronous earth orbit. Television and radio signals beamed from these platforms could, he noted, cover the globe”. (Parsons) It was an extraordinary intuition that a few years later started becoming reality.

The signals that cover the globe well describe the power of satellite television as a communication medium that disseminates information and entertainment all over the world and also spreads out culture, traditions and way of life even from and to the furthest lands. “At the forefront of the technological changes in broadcasting technology was the satellite, which abolished distance and allowed for the first time the linking of remote territories into new viewing communities”. (Sinclair, Jacka, and Cunningham)

People living distant thousands and thousands of miles have been linking simply by television signals beamed from platforms in the space. For example, a Pakistan family can watch in London ARY Television, a satellite television in hurdu that in a few years has been spreading in Middle East, Europe and Asia. The content, the language and the format of the programmes are specifically made for a hurdu audience that is localized not only in Pakistan, but also in Europe, as the family in London. The programmes are transmitted from Middle East; the family living in London can watch them in the same time another family in Karachi does the same.

Thanks to this extraordinary invention, people distant from homeland do have the big chance to

keep and strength their relations with the origin world, a world that otherwise could have been lost forever. They could have travelled and kept in touch with the telephone, but the linkage to the homeland, to culture and traditions, should not have been constant and strong as it is watching TV and absorbing the message that arrives from their countries of origin. Migrants are virtually united by television signals and they become a sort of aerial communities, transnational communities.

Low cost and accessibility

The global migration trends have been growing sensitively in the last years for different reasons: wars, poverty, diseases, and persecutions. The mobility of people that the U.S. based anthropologist Arjun Appadurai defined Ethnoscape is characterized by refugees and immigrants, but also by tourists, students and professional. “Ethnoscape denotes the flow of people – such as tourists, refugees, immigrants, students and professional – from one part of the globe to another”. (Thussu) However, transnational communities, that are the object of this research, are essentially immigrants and refugees, escaping from wars, tyranny, persecution, starving, illness, and poverty. These people leave their countries and start a new life in a world completely different. In this new world they feel the need to build bridges with their country of origin. Satellite television is one of these bridges, one of the strongest due to the diffusion and accessibility. In fact, the lowered cost and the accessibility of satellite technology have permitted the wide spreading of this communication system among transnational communities and new satellite ethnic televisions mushroom.

“Satellite communication is economically distance-insensitive; once the capital investment is in place, the cost of transmission within the footprint of satellite is equal to all points. And the cost of adding additional receivers within the footprint is only the cost of the receiving equipment itself”. (Parsons) Digital technology is making satellite television even more accessible and widespread. “Direct broadcast satellite  (DBS) signals which can be received by small, relatively inexpensive dishes are now becoming common as the new video digital compression technology increases the channel capacity of satellite transponders up to ten times, and hence greatly increase the choice that can be offered by DBS”. (Hoskins, McFadyen, and Finn)

Television as source of identity

There is no doubt about the role of television as a source of identity. “While questions of identity have become the central theme of cultural studies, television, as the major form of communication in western societies, is one of its longstanding concerns. However, the case for exploring the economic and cultural significance of television is particularly acute at present because of changes in the pattern of global communications including a significant rise in transnational television. In turn, the globalization of the institutions of television raises crucial questions about culture and cultural identities. Thus, the globalization of television has provided a proliferating resource for both the deconstruction and reconstruction of cultural identities. That is, television has become a leading resource for the construction of identity projects”. (Barker)

Television creates images and ideas in which people can identify themselves to belong to a group, to a nation. In the past this role was covered by the print, but with the advent of television the new medium of communication became a major producer of self-representation. The root of the self-national consciousness of belonging to a community is in Benedict Anderson’s theory on the origin and spread of Nationalism. “In an anthropological spirit, I propose the following definition of the nation: it is an imagined political community […] It is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion”. (Anderson)

Citizens imagine and consider themselves being part of a nation within boundaries, linked by several factors as languages, traditions, and culture. The satellite television has expanded this idea. “Benedict Anderson’s concept of “imagined communities” has been one of the most influential tropes in theories of national consciousness for more than a decade, but as satellite television distribution transcends the borders of the nation-state, there is some value in applying it to the new audience entities which that process creates.”  (Sinclair, Jacka, and Cunningham)

“Benedict Anderson argued that print capitalism created the possibility of an imagined community, in which individuals came to feel intimately connected to millions of people they had never met. By the same token it is fair to suggest that migrant communities may be encouraged by the availability of different satellite channels to feel they belong to two or more imagined communities at the same time”. (Sakr)

Imagined transnational communities

The rise of print capitalism in Anderson’ theory has provided the condition to create a national identity. The rise of satellite television is at the root of the process for developing and sustaining a transnational identity. In fact, the accessibility and the availability of different satellite channels have given the chance to migrant communities spread around the globe to watch programme, information, entertainment, films, advertisement, products that “speak one, single language”: the homeland “language”. Naomi Sakr analyses the role of satellite television particularly referring to the Middle East and points out: “Satellite television broadcast in Middle Eastern languages have the capacity to respond to population movements, linking communities in different parts of the globe on the basis not of their nationality or location but of their linguistic and cultural affinities”. (Sakr)

Anderson’s theory of imagined community can be adapted to the transnational communities that can feel to belong to supranational communities with the instrument of satellite. People that had to or choose to leave their country now have the big chance to interact across boundaries. Even if they are migrant, they are living in different and distant places, they can participate to the life of the nation where they were living years before or where the forebears come from.

Watching TV and programmes about homeland, transnational communities realize that they are still part, even only in their feelings, of a nation they do not live in anymore, but they also understand being part of a new community, a transnational, diasporic community. They are living the same experience of others that are in a different part of the globe. However, they cannot ignore to be part of a nation in which they are living, studying, working. “Minority media can become symbols of empowerment, they can inform and communicate symbols of community and they can potentially mediate a group’s participation in the public sphere of the country where they live in, in the public sphere of their country of origin and in transnational public spheres that emerge in the diasporic experience – as people who come from a common distant homeland and are presently spread around the globe seek communication and community”. (Georgiou)

The result is the production of several identities that characterize transnational communities. “It becomes possible to think of identities which are multiple, although also often contradictory, corresponding to the different levels from which the televisual environment is composed in a given market. An Egyptian immigrant in Britain might think of herself as a Glaswegian when she watches her local Scottish channel, a British resident when she switches over to the BBC, an Islamic Arab expatriate in Europe when she tunes in to the satellite service from the Middle East, and a world citizen when she channel surfs on to CNN”. (Sinclair, Jacka, and Cunningham) Relations across boundaries mean also globalization as “the identification of world-wide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa”. (Giddens) In the search of their local, their world of origin, transnational communities are developing on the shape of global.

Two faces: global and local

Transnational communities are both global and local. This dualism is well explored in a study of the social anthropologist Marie Gillespie about the role of television in the formation and transformation of identity among young Punjabi Londoners as the researcher states in the first lines of her book “Television, ethnicity and cultural change”. Punjabi Londoners “are young people of Punjabi family background, mainly in the 14-18 age group, living in Southall, west London, the largest Asian community outside the Indian subcontinent”. (Gillespie)

They are cosmopolitan, but they are also involved in diasporic media; they are international, but they bring also their parents’ national traditions. “To describe them as Punjabi Londoners is to frame them in terms of two significant and related, but by no means comprehensive, aspects of their identity: their cosmopolitanism, and their involvement in the particular media experiences and cultural practices of the Punjabi, or more broadly Indian, diaspora”. (Gillespie)

People prefer ethnic television

The role of satellite seems to be central for migrant communities dispersed in the world. It represents a strong instrument of dissemination and survival for jeopardized cultures and it maintains the linkage with the country of origin and among dispersed groups. “Among a growing number of such groups, one can mention the Jewish, Armenian, Palestinian and Kurdish diasporas; Iranian exile groups in the U.S.; North African migrant communities in continental Europe; Pakistani and Indian communities in Britain. Though they do form small-scale communities locally – neighbourhoods, ‘street-corner’ or ‘housing-project’ societies – such groups often do not share a common space. Typically, they are spread over the territories of many nation-states and their members are exposed to an unusually vast range of potential identities”. (Dayan)

Groups and communities are growing dramatically especially in Western countries and ethnic television is becoming more important and stronger than hitherto. For this reason there are concerns that this satellite television is threatening long established television, such as BBC, as the Guardian newspaper reported.

“The BBC’s annual report showed that the corporation’s reach among Asian audiences – where it is already less popular than among the general population, is falling, and research published recently showed why. More than 70% of British Asian homes – twice the national average – have Sky digital or cable TV. The TV diet of more than two thirds of Asian viewers is made up of Asian-interest channels, featuring dramas set on the subcontinent, news from “back home” and Bollywood music. […] The BBC is concerned that, despite strenuous efforts to attract larger Asian audiences, increasing numbers of Britain’s 4.5 million ethnic minority viewers are paying the license fee for services they are no longer interested in consuming. The corporation’s annual report noted that radio’s reach among ethnic minorities had fallen from 46.9% to 45.2% and TV’s from 78.6% to 78.3%”. The decrease of the audience ratings is not high, but the phenomenon concerns corporation’s managers, as Vasagar and Brown reported on the Guardian. Transnational communities do watch the television of the country in which they live, but they are spending more time seeing programmes made by satellite television produced and originated from their homeland. The more time they spend seeing programme in their language from their countries, the less time they watch TV of the nation in which they move.

Croatian television: a case study

The BBC Monitoring World Media transmitted an excerpt from report by Croatian radio delivered the same day. The news was concise, but clear and detailed: “Announcer Croatian TV will begin a 24 hour transmission of its satellite programme for Croatian emigrants late on Tuesday 14 October and early on Wednesday morning 15 October, Croatian Radio-TV HRT reports. The transmission of the satellite TV programme for Croatian emigrants in North and South America, Australia, New Zealand and Europe will officially begin on Wednesday 14 October at 0130 1130 gmt”. The headline of the news was: “Croatia: TV set to transmit 24 hour satellite programme for Diaspora”.

The case of Croatian TV is not the only one, but it is one of the most recent projects in the world to set a satellite television with programmes that must reach the Croatian population disseminated in several continents. The Croatian project is very ambitious and it is explained in detail in the Croatian Radiotelevision website that has two versions: in Croat and in English. In the website, it has been announced that the television “starts to broadcast on a regular basis 8 hours of programming for Croatian citizens abroad. The programme is broadcasted free to air for Europe from 2 am to 10 am CET and from 8 am to 4 pm for South America. In North America on the East Coast the broadcast begins at 8 pm and is broadcasted around the clock, 3×8 hours. On the West Coast (Los Angeles) the program begins at 5 pm local time and it is broadcasted around the clock too. The same round-the-clock programming is broadcasted over Australia and New Zealand, starting at 10 am (Sydney) and 8 am (Perth). New Zealand will see the start of broadcast at noon”. It means that a Croatian family that ten years ago escaped from the country due to the war in the Balkans and went to North America, on the East Coast, where Croatian friends or relatives were living, now has the chance to get inside the origin country life trough the instrument of satellite. “The program is bringing prime time shows from HRT’s own production. A part from news and current affairs programs like Croatia Today, Prime Time News and Meridian 16 and weekly interviews and news magazines, the programming will include sports, entertainment and musical shows. Also, there will be a pick up of children’s shows, education programs, youth interest programming, science shows, as well as those from  realms of culture, documentaries, religious programming and drama”.

Conclusion

The study shows that the role of satellite television is central for survival and development of transnational communities, people that for different reasons left, leave, are leaving and will leave the homeland for living in another countries more or less distant from their world of origin. Before the emergence of satellite television minorities could have had the chance to keep in touch with their countries thanks to the telephone and travelling; satellite television gives them the concrete opportunity to build a solid bridge to their culture and tradition that otherwise, living far away, could have been lost or weakened. There is evidence that this medium of communication helps to preserve and to strength the original identity of these populations. When people watch satellite television from a “foreign” country they feel to belong to a group of migrants that is spread through the globe; at the same time they also understand to belong to their native land. Therefore they feel being part of the nation in which they live and study or work, part of their country of origin and part of the globe in which they know other people with the same origin are living. Several identities characterize transnational communities that thanks to satellite television are becoming stronger and bigger than hitherto. “We may be entering a new, postmodern epoch in which the idea of a single, nation-state based identity is giving way to a more fragmented and hybridised spectrum of cultural identities. The new media – cable, satellite, video, and the Internet – offer rich sources for constructing these diasporic and hybrid identities”. (Thompson)

Bibliography

Books

Anderson, B (1983) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and the Spread of Nationalism London, Verso

Barker, C (1999) Television, Globalization and Cultural Identities Buckingham-Philadelphia, Open University Press

Dayan, D (1999) Media and Diasporas in Jostein Gripsrud, Television and Common Knowledge London, Routledge

Giddens, A (1990) The Consequences of Modernity Cambridge, Polity

Gillespie, M (1995) Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change London, Routledge

Hoskins, C, McFadyen, S and Finn, A (1997) Global Television and Film Oxford, Oxford University Press

Sakr, N (2001) Satellite Realms Transnational Television, Globalization and the Middle East London-New York, I.B. Tauris

Sinclair, J, Jacka, E and Cunningham, S (1996) New Patterns in Global Television Peripheral Vision Oxford, Oxford University Press

Thussu, D K (2000) International Communication Continuity and Change London, Arnold Publisher

Journal Articles

Parsons, P (2003) “The Evolution of the Cable-Satellite Distribution System” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Mediav. 47 i. 1

Thompson, K (2002) “Border Crossings and Diasporic Identities: Media Use and Leisure Practices of an Ethnic minority”Qualitative Sociology v. 25 i. 3

Newspaper articles

Vasagar, J and Brown, M (July 21, 2003) “Many Britons are shunning UK Television” The Guardian London

Websites

Georgiou, M (2002) “Mapping Minority Media in the EU: Mapping Participation in Communities Beyond a Bounded Europe” Barcelona

HRT: Naslovnica

BBC

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When the first computer actually “came to life” is quite difficult to say. Some may say that it all began in the 1860′s when “Dorr Felt designed an experimental, multiple-order, key-driven, calculating machine”. (Great Men and Women of Computing p. 33). Still others may argue that “The Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, being the first fully functional, program controlled, general-purpose digital computer” (Great Men and Women of Computing p. 67), created by Konrad Zuse was really the major stepping stone in the creation of the computer. “Computers were invented to ‘compute’: to solve ‘complex mathematical problems’, as the dictionary still defines that word.” (Ceruzzi, Paul E.; A History of Modern Computing; P.1). The invention of the computer or even the calculator that preceded the computer made a huge impact on society in terms of convenience. Although the ease of use was nowhere near what we know today, it was a greatly significant improvement from what they had prior to it. Before the computer became as commonplace as it is now, people had to get their news and information from other sources. Many of which, they may have had to leave home for or in some instances possibly even travel some way for. Of course this was quite a while ago, but the significance should be looked upon with respect to those times. This is possibly the main reason that the computer was such an appealing source of news and information. Now we can get anything on the computer. News, weather, or entertainment are all at the tips of our fingers.

Within the creation of the computer there have been many notable people and different forms of technology that have been utilized.  Many of the pioneers of the computer invention were mathematicians. One important factor that was discovered and eventually helped aid the progress of the computer was logarithms. “John Napier provided science and mathematics with a vastly improved and rapid method of notation and calculation, also known as logarithms. This contribution should be considered a major milestone in humanities struggle to improve methods of processing information.” ( Great Men and Women of Computing p. 13). Another of the great technological advancements was the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (The ABC Computer). “In 1939, John Atanasoff built the prototype of an electronic digital computer, with the help of an assistant, Clifford Berry. The ABC was the first electronic digital computer and was assembled in 1942″. (Great Men and Women of Computing p. 85) This is an extremely notable invention because it unitized many of the components that we still use in the computers of today. The first large-scale computer, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer), was built by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly in 1946. “Up until 1963, credit was given to John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert for the first electronic computer” (Great Men and Women of Computing p. 85). From what I have read on the subject of these inventors, I would say that John Atanasoff should really be the person credited with the invention of the prototype of the computers that are still in use today.

Many of the early pioneers of computing are women. Edith Clarke was a pioneer in the sense that she pushed for society to become more accepting of women in positions of power or authority. “In an interview with the Daily Texan she is quoted as saying ‘There is no demand for women engineers, as such, as there are for women doctors; but there’s always a demand for anyone who can do a good piece of work’” (yale.edu).

She also made an impact with her intelligence. “he translated what many engineers found to be esoteric mathematical methods into graphs or simpler forms during a time when power systems were becoming more complex and when the initial efforts were being made to develop electromechanical aids to problem solving” (yale.edu). Erna Schneider Hoover is another notable woman in the world of computing. “She invented a computerized switching system for telephone traffic, to replace existing hard-wired, mechanical switching equipment” (yale.edu).  For this accomplishment she received one of the first patents ever issued (Patent #3,623,007, Nov. 23, 1971). These women made a name for themselves in a profession that was predominantly male.

The creation of the computer as a form of mass communication has created many opportunities within society. With the creation of every new web page or every new news link, we are creating more jobs for the people in our communities. The computer industry has been beneficial to the economy in that it is a great source of employment and education. The computer plays a very important role in many aspects of our lives. Politicians often use the Internet as a forum to boast about whatever they are using as their sales pitch for that week. It reaches so many people by just posting something on an official web page. Voters can look up the past accomplishments of a candidate or just see what they like or dislike about each person before they head out to the polls.

A complication that the computer and Internet bring is the effect on social interaction. While in the past, we have not had many form of mass communication, we now find ourselves overwhelmed at all of the different ways to interact with another person. Most children today learn to use the computer at a very young age. My son is two years old and can already play certain games on the computer by himself. This type of learning is wonderful for his logical and intellectual side, but they may also hinder him in the social aspect of his future. Many children or even adults become so obsessed by the computer with its email and chat rooms that they have trouble relating to people on a face-to-face basis. They are so used to faceless people that they know only by a screen name that the interaction that they have outside of that is strained. I would not say that this is the norm for our society, but it is becoming more common that it was even just ten years ago. Within the next few years who knows how people will be interacting with each other. Especially with the new technological advances that are created every day. While many of the people in our society have access to a computer almost twenty-four hours a day there are many other societies or cultures that do not. Whether I am at work or at home, I have access to the computer and the Internet at all times, whereas a girl my age in Africa more that likely would not have the same privilege. This difference in our cultures may provide me a better education as well as a more definite future all because she would not have access to a computer and all the learning tools that come along with it. The computer is definitely something that would make a huge difference if it were more accessible to different cultures or societies that may not be able to afford this technology on their own.

While the computer is a very important and vital form of communication in today’s world, it is also a form of mass communication that is not regulated by the State and therefore cannot be one hundred percent private for anyone to use. (Cate, Frank H. p. 53) Privacy is a major concern for some people that are trying to be anonymous for one reason or another while online. You can have a certain amount of privacy when you go into a chat room or order something online, but there are other areas that we may not be able to control. “The Intel Corporation embedded unique network operators to identify specific users on the Internet” (Folkerts J., and Lacy. S 2001) making it impossible to be anonymous while searching the Web. As well as these forms of privacy, there is also the subject of “user accessibility” (Folkerts J., and Lacy. S 2001). User accessibility refers to what you are and are not able to see while on the Internet. A good example would be, what sites your children are allowed to go to. To prevent your children from going to inappropriate sites such as pornography sites, you can purchase a filter such as “Cybersitter or Clickchoice”. (Folkerts J., and Lacy. S 2001).  This is especially important with the rise of pedophiles looking for victims by using the internet.

Like anything else in the world, the future of the computer is not certain. I do think that with all of the technological advancements in the world of science and mathematics, it will only get more advanced. The options that the computer creates are limitless. I often wonder what more will be possible to do online. I often wonder what more can be created that we as a society really need. I think that much of what will be created or discovered in the future of the computer will be advancements made for personal gain rather than what we really need.

The technology that we have in today’s world is a great tool for us to use now and in the future, but I hope that we, as a society, are able to stay on one side of the line without crossing over it. We always need to be aware that nothing can replace human interaction and the need for privacy. While I feel that it is a wonderful tool for education I also think that it is abused and over used as a form of entertainment. One thing is for certain, and that is that we owe a great deal of respect to the pioneers of the computer and what they have accomplished. Without them, the world as we know it would be a very different place.

Works Cited

• The Media in Your Life: An Introduction to Mass Communication, Second Edition by Jean Folkerts and Stephen Lacy; Boston
• A History of Modern Computing; Paul Ceruzzi; Massachusetts
• Great Men and Women of Computing; Donald Spencer; Ormand Beach, Florida.
• www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/past-women-cs.html

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Columbia Pictures Corporation
Directed by Frank Borzage
Based on a novel  by Ferenc Molnár
Written by Jo Swerling
Cinematography by Joseph H. August
Edited by Viola Lawrence

Nemecsek (George P. Breakston)
Boka (Jimmy Butler)
Gereb (Jackie Searl)
Feri Ats (Frankie Darro)
Csonakos (Donald Haines)
Ferdie Pasztor (Rolf Ernest)
Henry Pasztor (Julius Molnar)
Kolnay (Wesley Giraud)
Csele (Beaudine Anderson)

Within the medium of film, it’s easy to convince yourself that you know what a film is really trying to say by accepting the surface message. In the case of Frank Borzage’s “No Greater Glory,” the apparent surface message is essentially that war is bad. However, upon closer inspection it becomes clear that the war portrayed gives the characters purpose, and the war alone is responsible for the eventual unity reached by the end of the film. Through the use of deliberate staging and framing, Frank Borzage effectively represents the social status and progression through the social hierarchy of certain key characters within “No Greater Glory.”

The film opens with a war montage, before quickly cutting to a classroom packed with boys. A few of the boys are passing a note, and as a result are asked to stay after the class is dismissed. Here we are introduced to the primary characters including Nemecsek (George P. Breakston), Boka (Jimmy Butler), and Gereb (Jackie Searl), among others. Together, the boys form a faction known as The Paul Street Boys. One day, Gereb deliberately leaves the door to the Paul Street lot unlocked, giving Feri Ats (Frankie Darro), the head of rival gang the Red Shirts, the opportunity to steal the boy’s flag. Boka, Nemecsek and Csonakos (Donald Haines) go on a mission to recover their flag, only to discover that Gereb is the traitor.

Nemecsek falls ill from the previous night’s exploits, but still attempts once again to recover the flag. In doing so he earns the respect of Feri Ats, but exhausts himself even further. Eventually Nemecsek is bed-ridden. The Paul Street Boys and the Red Shirts agree to have an organized war for control of the flag. Nemecsek, out of a deep-seeded responsibility and an onset of hallucinations, forces himself to get to the lot in time for the war. He finds Feri Ats, and wrestles him to the ground for the flag, only to die moments later. The film concludes with his mother walking him back from the lot, with all the boys following closely behind. Shortly after, the boys memorialize Nemecsek in the lot, just as it is revealed that the vacant lot will be developed after all.

Borzage’s utilization of cinematic techniques has been pretty well exhibited in the portion of his works we’ve seen thus far this semester. By far, the most apparent element is the exposition he provides through the way characters are framed. Perhaps the only time we see all of the boys represented equally on the screen is in the classroom at the beginning of the film. There is a shot when the boys are addressing the teacher after class, which is essentially a profile shot of Nemecsek, Boka, and Gereb (from left to right). Each of them takes up almost exactly one third of the frame, and it is one of the only times Gereb appears to be almost as tall as Boka, presumably because of the slight upward angle it is shot from. Even Nemecsek in this scene appears to have more of a presence than his other appearances around this point in the film. The representation of a socially equal environment by Borzage through the staging here is unique to this moment in the film.

In the case of “No Greater Glory,” a good place to start when discussing the significance of framing would be with Gereb, the traitorous Paul Street boy, whom Borzage apparently has a lot to say about. Following the boys’ initial appearance in the classroom, the next time we are introduced to them, they are in their full military regalia in the Paul Street lot. During the scene, Nemecsek pleads to become an officer, like everyone else, and the camera frequently cuts back and forth between Nemecsek, and Boka and Gereb. It is at this point Borzage begins to develop his own commentary on the characters through framing, as is evidenced by Gereb’s apparent stature throughout these shots. The entire left half of the frame is devoted to Boka, and while Gereb is directly to his left (the audience’s right), he appears to be substantially shorter than he was when we were introduced to him one scene ago. What could otherwise be attributed to slouching seems deliberate on the part Borzage, because immediately behind Gereb is another unspecified Paul Street boy, who towers above him. Even though the boy placed behind Gereb is a few feet behind him, and slightly more to the right of the frame, his head actually touches the top of the frame, just as Boka’s does. This can hardly be attributed to the angle from which the shot was taken, because the camera appears to be at about eye level with Boka, pointed down at only a very slight angle.

At the conclusion of the previous scene, as well as in the next scene, Borzage uses the same techniques to once again portray Gereb as small of stature, or insignificant against the rest of the Paul Street boys. First there is a wide-angle shot of that described above. Nemecsek, in front of a number of the Paul Street boys, is on the left, and Boka and Gereb are in the right half of the frame, also backed by a number of the other boys. The shot is once again taken at a slight downward angle, from just about the level of the top of the boys’ caps. Only the profile of Gereb is visible, closest to the camera, but once again it is evident that he is shorter than the rest, with military caps behind him extending above his own. Moments later Borzage transitions to the election scene. Gereb is only visible on three occasions in this scene. First a wide-angle shot is utilized to once again show him backed by some of the other Paul Street Boys. Gereb is immediately in the center of the frame. Directly behind him is the single tallest Paul Street Boy so far. To the right of the frame is vacant lot’s watchman, a war veteran. Visible behind him, only by the top of his cap, is a very short boy (shorter than Gereb by about 6 inches or so), who position-wise is directly to the right of Gereb, as opposed to the watchman who is to his right and closer to the camera. As if the enormous boy behind him weren’t enough, Borzage cuts to a close up (a sequence he uses twice in the scene) of Gereb. His face is in the center of the frame taking up a good portion of it, however to the left of the frame you can see the body of the tall boy. He is so tall, however, that his face is out the top of the frame, and only his neck is visible. To the right of the frame, behind Gereb’s left shoulder, the short boy who was moments ago obviously dwarfed by Gereb is standing. His cap is entirely out of the frame and the majority of his face fills the upper right hand corner. This cannot be attributed to the angle, as the camera is at eye level with Gereb. Either Borzage swapped the boy for a taller boy for the close up, or he gave the short boy a box to stand on. When one begins to wonder why Borzage didn’t let the short boy fill the space behind Gereb, even though it contested the continuity of the scene, it becomes clear that he had an agenda,

That agenda apparently was to exhibit Gereb as diminutive and minuscule, in order to parallel the character he exhibits, or even the way the other Paul Street Boys think of him. Considering the literal interpretation of the plot, Gereb gets only two votes for the office of president out of the whole lot of the Paul Street boys, one from himself, and one from his gracious opponent. It stands to reason that Borzage could be sympathizing with this, by representing Gereb as an insignificant part of the group. His social status appears to be elevated only a few short scenes later, after framing Nemecsek for leaving the door to the lot open. In another shot, straight on from eye-level, Gereb is to the left of the frame, Boka is in the center, and Nemecsek is to the right. Finally, Nemecsek appears diminuitive in contrast to everyone else in the frame. At the same time, Gereb appears just as tall as Boka, both of their caps just barely leaving the top of the frame. How Borzage achieves this is unclear, as they appear to be standing directly next to one another. What is much more clear, is that the shot seems to signify an upward movement for Gereb. His deceit, while not yet apparent to the audience, has increased his social status among the Red Shirts, and seemingly bolstered his self confidence. The scene continues and the Paul Street Boys run to check on their flag. Gereb stays behind and is framed in alone, as Borzage cuts back and forth between him and the high angle shot of the rest of the Paul Street Boys. Once again, the framing here is indicative of Gereb’s social status as an outsider.

It is a stark contrast when Gereb is welcomed into the Red Shirts camp. The boys, gathered around with their spears at hand, kneel down so that Gereb is visually high above them all, in the very center of the frame. Feri Ats is the only Red Shirt left standing (or, sitting, but sitting high on a rock), and he practically sees eye to eye with Gereb. Moments later, the rest of the Red Shirts rise to their feet again, and Gereb in the foreground is practically the same height as these boys who are now standing in the background. This would be fine except these boys are supposedly older, and as evidenced elsewhere in the film, for the most part taller. It’s intriguing that the shot appears to be from approximately the same slight angle that the earlier shots are taken from. The only reason Borzage would possibly go to such great lengths to show Gereb in this manner is to visually depict the contrast between his social status among the Paul Street Boys and the Red Shirts. Through these techniques, Borzage doesn’t necessarily justify Gereb’s actions, but he does subtly inject sympathy into the audience. Through the framing and staging of Gereb, Borzage communicates the notion that he is appreciated and heralded as a welcome spy by the Red Shirts, while when he is with the Paul Street Boys  he is an outsider who has little or no value to the group. It seems as though Borzage is using this contrast in social status to ask the audience, can you blame him?

There is a shift later in the film for Gereb, at least among the Red Shirts. In a scene that is set up similar to how it was before, Gereb speaking with Feri Ats surrounded by the other Red Shirts, there is significant visual distinction setting it apart. While Feri Ats is once again sitting on his rock, at practically eye-level with Gereb, the rest of the Red Shirts are standing this time, for the entirety of the scene. A number of times the camera cuts to straight on angle, with Gereb centered in the frame, Feri Ats filling the left of the frame, and the Red Shirts this time standing taller than him in the background. His presence is minimized this time around, as he has lost some of his importance to the Red Shirts. To the contrary, in the final war scene of the film, Gereb is depicted as somewhat of an equal. He is never staged in front of the taller individuals, and he is not depicted alone in the frame at any point. Also, in his exchange with Boka, the two basically see eye to eye, before Gereb assumes his place among the other Paul Street Boys. While his social status may not be incredible with that faction, it has notably improved since the earliest scenes in the film. Borzage appears to be depicting a boy who has redeemed himself. He made a mistake, his sin was forgiven (through the selflessness of another), and he made good the second time around, content with his role in their microcosm of society.

The boy who helped Gereb to redeem himself is none other than Nemecsek, the individual Gereb tries to wrongly incriminate earlier in the film. It seems that Borzage has no less to say about Nemecsek than he did about his foil. Revisiting the opening scene where we are introduced to all of the boys, we once again encounter the socially equal environment mentioned earlier. In one shot, the teacher, his head practically reaching the top of the frame, takes up the leftmost quarter of the frame while the six boys are lined up in profile in the rest of it. The boys get further from the camera as they extend from the right of the frame,to the center, where Nemecsek stands. It is interesting to note that Nemecsek is the only boy at this point not in profile. He is literally facing the camera in the center of the frame, though his presence is still minimized because he is the furthest from the camera. The staging may be representative of the degree to which Nemecsek is exposed later in the film. Both his social difficulty early on, and social advancement later seem to stem from this degree of candidness (plot-wise, his willingness to cry and bare his feelings, and cinematically, the exposure Borzage grants him on the screen to emphasize the genuineness of his character).

One scene which reveals this vulnerability in particular is just a few scenes into the film, when the audience first encounters the Red Shirts. Descending from the top right corner of the frame, to the left center down a set of stairs no less, is Feri Ats and two of his henchmen. Feri Ats once again leans on the masonry to the far side of the stairs in the left of the frame, while his henchmen stand in approximately the center. The scene cuts to a wide angle shot of the whole scene, clearly taking place under a bridge which arcs over the top of the frame, jutting into the right half a bit. The stairs are visible in the background, with Feri Ats still leaning on the railing in the far left of the frame, directly above Nemecsek’s counterparts. Feri Ats’ henchmen approach Nemecsek who just crossed from the left of the frame to the right, against a wall constituting the base of the bridge. At this point there is a quick cutaway to the henchmen kicking Nemecsek over, before cutting directly back to this wide-angle shot. Nemecsek is huddled in the lower right corner of the frame, barely taking up a small fraction of it. Meanwhile, the two thugs standing in the dead center of the frame are hunched slightly over, which in of itself would be a monstrous sight even discounting the enormous shadows they throw over the inside wall of the bridge Nemecsek is leaning against. The idea Borzage is trying to supplant at this point seems to be that, as insignificant as Nemecsek may feel within his own ranks, he cannot so much as stand up to the enemy, literally or figuratively. At this point in the film, he is at the bottommost portion of the social hierarchy presented. Borzage does not clarify at this point if he feels that Nemecsek’s position is justified, purveying solely the idea of powers greater than him keeping him down.

Another interesting scene commenting on Nemecsek’s literal movement through the social hierarchy of the groups occurs when Gereb tries to frame him for leaving the gate to the lot open. The shot in question begins when Hector (the watchman’s dog) leads Nemecsek to one of the towers in the lot. There is a quick shot with the full frame being filled by Nemecsek’s face, looking upward before cutting quick to the dog and immediately back to Nemecsek. He begins to scale the pillar on the far left of the frame, grabbing and stepping onto planks jutting out from it as he ascends upwards in the frame. Borzage cuts to a closer angle, with Nemecsek framed directly center as he continues his ascent. Once he reaches the top, there is a shot of his face peeking over the corner of the pillar, before falling back down, scared of what he saw. The significance of this scene lies almost entirely in the slow ascent and rapid descent of Nemecsek. Borzage appears to be paralleling Nemecsek’s predicament. Here is an instance of Borzage positively portraying the idea of bravery, with Nemecsek overcoming his fear and scaling the pillar. There is no reason the pillar had to be as tall as it was, except that it gave Borzage an added excuse to show Nemecsek climbing upward, and making his fall from grace even that much more significant. On the one hand, one could say that Nemecsek’s climb was representative of his potential social improvement if he were to stop Feri Ats (the culprit at the top of the pillar) from stealing the flag. His failure to do so quite literally puts him right back where he started. On the other hand, this one scene could very well be representative of Nemecsek’s character through the entire film; a gradual increase in social status with both factions over the course of the film, with one traumatic fall from grace at the end.

There is one scene that comes to mind that parallels this scene. In a bold move, Nemecsek attempts to recapture the Paul Street Boys’ flag from the Red Shirts. He successfully does so, however he falls from his hiding place in a tree while the Red Shirts are gathered below. One moment the camera is locked on Nemecsek sitting on the branch of a tree, shot through the foliage. The next, it is a wide angle shot of the Red Shirts meeting which Nemecsek literally falls directly into the middle of, down from the top center of the frame to the bottom center. Where as before it was his fear of Feri Ats that caused him to fall, this time it was the fall that caused him to overcome his fear of Feri Ats. The bravery exemplified, a feature admired and respected by both Borzage and Feri Ats is the catalyst for Nemecsek’s upward movement within the social hierarchy of both camps.

The final two scenes of utmost significance for Nemecsek tie directly into one another. In the final conflict, Nemecsek dies after attacking Feri Ats for the flag. This is quite literally him overcoming his biggest fear, and in taking the flag, he achieves the highest renown within his own faction. The scene best representative of this is that immediately following his death. Nemecsek’s mother is at the center of the frame carrying him down the street, and behind her the street is literally filled with the boys. There is literally no empty space behind her that isn’t occupied by a boy. Nemecsek, by this point, has earned so much respect by the two warring factions that he literally has both sides fully behind him. The allusion becomes even more clear when his mother stumbles, and Boka and Feri Ats both rush to either side of her (immediately left and right of the center) and help lift Nemecsek. At this point, Nemecsek has reached the pinnacle… or almost. In the scene immediately afterward, the boys are gathered in two single file lines in the vacant lot. In between the lines, at the very center of the frame is a box with a flag. At the top of that flagpole sits Nemecsek’s hat, high above any of the other boys. Borzage at this point is just echoing his point that Nemecsek’s place in the social hierarchy has reached its apex. While his death may very well be considered a fall from grace, that does not change the fact that the imagery Borzage presents is consistent throughout.

There are simply too many instances to list every time Borzage uses clever framing or staging to signify the social significance of an individual within the film. There is no question that Borzage was deliberate and meticulous in his effort to do so, and the film resounds with sincerity because of it. Borzage’s admiration of quality character traits is fairly well represented, and through understanding his perspective of the film’s social hierarchy, we can attain a better understanding of Borzage himself.

Related

US Airways:

Working Capital: (Year: 2001) Current Ratio: (Year 2001)

(Dollars in millions)

Current Assets $ 1,775 Current Assets $1,775 = 0.58

Less current Liabilities -3,026 Current Liabilities $3,026

Working Capital $1,231

Working Capital: (Year 2000) Current Ratio (Year 2000)

Current Assets $ 2,592 Current Assets $2,592 = 0.88

Less current Liabilities -2918 Current Liabilities $2,918

Working Capital $ 326

Compare to Southwest

(Dollars in millions)

Working Capital: (Year: 2001) Current Ratio: (Year: 2001)

Current Assets $2,520,219 Current Assets $2,520,219 = 1.12

Less current Liabilities -2,239,815 Current Liabilities $2,239,185

Working Capital $281,034

Working Capital: (Year: 2000) Current Ratio: (Year: 2000)

Current Assets $831,536 Current Assets $831,536 = 0.64

Less current Liabilities -1,298,403 Current Liabilities $1,298,403

Working Capital $466,867

In 2000, US Airways had more working capital and a higher current ratio then in 2001. In 2001, the current ratio was 0.58 compared to 0.88 in 2000, and its working capital in 2001 was $1,231 compared to $326 in 2000. Since current liabilities are paid out of current assets, US Airways could not cover its debts with its working capital from 2000 or 2001. The excess of current liabilities to current assets is the working capital that can be used to continue business, buy inventory, obtain credit, or expand sales (Financial Reports, ACT 161).

The current ratio is a good indicator of a company’s ability to pay its bills and repay loans (Ratio, ACT 161). Comparison of current ratios from 2001 to 2000 reveals a decrease of current assets for each $1.00 of current liabilities. US Airways’ current ratio was 0.58 in 2001 and 0.88 in 2000. An average current ratio of the airline industry is 0.9 (See Appendix H, pp.55-56). US Airways is under the average by a significant amount. Southwest followed close US Airways in 2000 with a current ratio of 0.64, but exceeded US Airways’ ratio in 2001 by 0.54. US Airways’ current position is unfavorable in the industry.

1. Executive Summary
2. SWOT Analysis
3. TOWS Diagram
4. IFE Matrix
5. EFE Matrix
6. SPACE Matrix
7. Critical Issues
8. Courses of Action
9. Financial Analysis

Related

• US Airways Swot Analysis
• US Airways SPACE Matrix
• US Airways IFE Matrix
• US Airways EFE Matrix
• US Airways International Expansion
• US Airways TOWS Diagram
• US Airways Critical Issues
• US Airways Courses of Action

Plane Efficiency

US Airways has seen many recurrences of its planes not being used to their fullest capacity. For example, US Airways has Boeing 767-200ERs that hold, on average, 203 passengers and it also has Boeing 737-300s that hold an average of 126 passengers (16). If US Airways is planning on sending out a 767 to take 100 passengers to a destination, it should reconsider its choice of plane to use. In this instance, a 737 should be used because it will be more fuel-efficient and will get the load factor to the breakeven point or over the breakeven point than if it was to use the 767 aircraft.

US Airways needs to implement a strategy to figure out which planes are needed at what times. The text states that “…strategy implementation is managing forces during the action” (D 236). If the strategy of switching planes, in order to help create growth and reduce fuel and maintenance costs, is implemented and continually followed through, the company will help to raise the load factor and decrease costs. The result of raising the load factor and decreasing costs will lead to long run growth and freeing up of cash.

There are two options that US Airways can choose from when deciding which plane should be used on which fight. It can put a cap on the flights or make a last minute decision about which plane would be flying for each flight. If US Airways puts a cap on each flight, it will know exactly how many people can be transported from one destination to another; therefore, the company will know which plane will be used for each flight. If US Airways waits until the last minute before the flight is due to take off, the company will have to have different planes available to be used, such as having both a 737 and 767.

Pros – If US Airways used this course of action; the company would be more efficient in the use of its planes and its money.

Cons – Ticket sales have decreased for US Airways; therefore, the bigger planes may not be needed and may be sitting, waiting to be used. This result will end with the company paying unneeded hanger, maintenance, and depreciation costs.

Build More Hubs and Expand Westward

There are many hubs in the eastern region. The major eastern cities that US Airways hubs are located in are Boston, New York-La Guardia, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, D.C., and Charlotte (21). US Airways should try to build more hubs westward to expand its business to travelers in other parts of the country.

US Airways could conduct a feasibility study, which is a test to see if a company will have success at a new property and its main concentration is on location, guest demographics, the competition and financial analysis. If the study proves that US Airways will be profitable, it should open hubs in the West (Feasibility Studies, HTM 111). US Airways should also conduct a customer analysis, as well. Customer analysis is “…the examination and evaluation of customer needs, desires, and wants…” (D 133). The customer analysis “…involves administering customer surveys, analyzing consumer information, evaluating market positioning strategies, developing customer profiles, and determining optimal market segmentation strategies” (D 133). If the company concludes that customers will use its services, it should proceed with opening the new hubs in the West.

US Airways can get new routes and hubs in the West. For example, US Airways could buyout smaller airlines that are dominant in the West in order to expand and gain more business in the West. US Airways will have to spend money in order to acquire the new hubs and flights, but if the feasibility study and customer analysis were completed accurately, the company should be able to get on its feet quickly.

Pros – Because US Airways has so many hubs on the East Coast, it may be able to dominate it and move westward to make the company stronger and grow faster.

Cons – Adding more hubs will cost money; US Airways will have to struggle with its finances, but to make money the company will have to spend money. The money that will be spent will be the cost of opening and operating new hubs in new areas of the country.

Possible Mergers

US Airways is not doing well by itself; therefore, a possible merger and cooperative arrangements with a financially secure company, such as Southwest or Delta, may be an option that the company can explore before taking on additional debt and possibly losing the company. “A merger occurs when two organizations of about equal size unite to form one enterprise” (D 180). After the merger occurs, the two companies that have now become one should take part in cooperative agreements, which are “…research and development partnerships, cross-distribution agreements, cross-licensing agreements, cross-manufacturing agreements, and joint-bidding consortia” (D 177).

If these two companies can come to an agreement on all the important business decisions, they will be on a good starting ground for the newly merged company to begin. The two companies will have to agree on financial decisions, flight patterns, and employee retention and termination. When the two companies are on disagreeing terms about those decisions, problems can occur.

Pros – There are many reasons that companies merge, mainly to create advantages for both sides. The main reason that US Airways should merge with another company would be to improve capacity utilization (D 181). This way the right plane is used at the right time in order to conserve cash and gain profit. Other reasons that companies merge are “…to make better use of the existing sales force, to reduce the managerial staff, to gain economies of scale, to smooth out seasonal trends in sales…”(D 181). US Airways can also take advantage of those benefits of the merger.

Cons – The companies may not agree on terms, which may cause some problems. The two companies may not be able to help each other in ways that they thought they could.

Eliminating the Hub System

Southwest has a system of transportation that does not include hubs and they are very profitable. If US Airways partakes in benchmarking Southwest and how it maintains a profitable business without hubs, then perhaps US Airways could also try to work without a hub system. “Benchmarking simply involves comparing a firm against the best firms in the industry on a wide variety of performance-related criteria” (D 250). US Airways could compare how Southwest does without the hub systems and how other companies do with the hub systems. Although markets are different, in various parts of the country, US Airways can make decisions on whether it should do business in those parts of the country. If US Airways follows the way that Southwest runs its hub-free systems in various parts of the country, US Airways can adjust to the different markets depending on where in the country it is providing its services.

If US Airways discovers that Southwest’s system works the best, US Airways could eliminate the hub system and initiate point-to-point travel. If the point-to-point system will not be in the best interest for US Airways, it should create ways to improve its hub systems and flight patterns to possibly increase profitability.

Pros – If US Airways decides to take the point-to-point option, profitability can possibly occur. Also, US Airways will have to sell its hub locations; therefore, it will receive money, which will help to relieve some debt and free up cash.

Cons – The loss of the hubs, if the point-to-point system does not work, will destroy the company. The company will be without a hub system and flights that travel point-to-point; therefore, the company will not have many options in running its business without one of those two ways of providing customers with its business and service.

The Sale of Bonds

Because the stock share value decreased so much for US Airways, a possible solution for them would be to offer bonds from its company. The economy is in a lull right now; therefore, it would be a good option for the company to bring more cash flow into to the company (Bonds and Interest Rates, ECN 101). The bonds at this time in our economy would have an increased bond rate because of higher levels of risk. Although US Airways’ credit would likely be junk status, investors seeking large returns maybe interested in bonds because investors would be making more money. The result is that it would provide some cash for US Airways.

Pros – US Airways could have more cash on hand to relieve itself from debt, and buyers of the bonds would be gaining higher interest off the bonds because the interest rates, presently, are higher for bonds than they were in the past.

Cons – US Airways will have to pay back the buyers of the bonds eventually.

Partnerships with a Freight Company

US Airways could work in partnership with a company such as UPS or FedEx. US Airways could sell its planes to one of those companies so that they can use them for cargo and freight flights. If US Airways can create a deal with a freight company to sell the planes that are not used often enough to make a profit or not being used at all, then the company will decrease some of its major assets but gain more cash, which in turn can help to decrease the amount of debt that has been incurred (Assets and Cash On Hand, ACT 161).

Pros – US Airways will decrease the size of its fleet and get rid of the planes that are not contributing to making profits by selling them to a freight company. The company will free up cash from the sales of the planes, which can be used to pay off its existing debt.

Cons – US Airways will decrease in size.

Recruit Top Management from Another Company

US Airways could recruit top management from another airline company. If US Airways was able to recruit someone from another company that has good deal making and business skills, that individual could help US Airways recover from its financial problems. If US Airways recruits a top management person from the industry, the person may know information that US Airways does not about the industry and that information could contribute to US Airways becoming profitable (Recruiting, BUS 420). US Airways could hire a top management person from a financially successful company in the industry, such as Southwest. Their knowledge from previous experience in the industry can positively impact US Airways.

Pros – If US Airways has a top management person helping to fix its big financial problem, he or she can try to turn the company around and help it become profitable.

Cons – The person US Airways chooses may not be the best person for the job. The manager may try to sabotage US Airways in some way to help the other companies gain more business and profits.

Recommended Actions

With as much debt as US Airways has, it is hard to make one recommendation to solve its problems. The first thing that needs to be done is to raise capital. The fastest and easiest way to do this is to sell planes that are leased. US Airways leases 193 planes total. US Airways only owns 149 planes (16). Since express flying is efficient and profitable to US Airways, they should consider selling some of the larger and more costly planes. This will give US Airways more money to reinvest or pay back some debt.

If US Airways sells some of its leased planes, it will also be cutting its expenses. The downside to this, however, is the fact that some flights will need to be cut. With enough planning, US Airways can cut the least profitable flights and sell the planes that are used to make those flights. There is insufficient information available to say what exact flights should be cut. However, top management of US Airways should have this information at its fingertips. From the financial information presented to us, we strongly recommend cutting some of the unprofitable international flights. With employees, US Airways can ask them to relocate and keep them on the staff or make layoffs.

Since US Airways is dominant on the East Coast (due to the number of hubs), it should use this to its advantage. US Airways should have cut throat advertising starting in the East. Once it regains dominance in the eastern region, it can start to re-grow westward, at a rate that is controllable and not as costly. The number one recommendation that US Airways needs to follow, if it wants to survive, is the dismantling of their hub-and-spoke system. This system is outdated and proves too costly for longer flights. This system is no longer working because it is inefficient. With a point-to-point system, only one plane would be used for the trip. Fuel would also be saved with the point-to-point system. Along with fuel and the number of planes used, the number of employees needed would also be cut down. Customers would also welcome this new system because of convenience. Without a layover, consumers will experience quicker flights, less loss of luggage, and cheaper tickets. The hub system is sufficient for the shorter express flights, but for the longer flights, it is proving too costly. Delta just added a division, called Song, which uses the point-to-point flying. Their reason for doing this was to lower costs by relying more on their planes (See Appendix G, p.54).

One negative outcome of changing the system is time and money. It will cost money to move to the point-to-point system, but in the near future the profits would outweigh the costs. Even though US Airways would save money with the point-to-point system, it should switch over just to stay competitive. With other airlines (Southwestern and Delta) flying point-to-point, US Airways needs to keep competitive. As a consumer, I would fly with the company that flew me straight to my destination without layovers. Time is a problem because it is difficult to convert every hub, plane, and flight pattern into the point-to-point system overnight. The conversion needs to be done slowly and strategically to be most efficient and effective.

1. Executive Summary
2. SWOT Analysis
3. TOWS Diagram
4. IFE Matrix
5. EFE Matrix
6. SPACE Matrix
7. Critical Issues
8. Courses of Action
9. Financial Analysis

Related

• US Airways International Expansion
• US Airways Financial Analysis
• US Airways EFE Matrix
• US Airways SPACE Matrix
• US Airways IFE Matrix
• US Airways TOWS Diagram
• US Airways Critical Issues
• US Airways Swot Analysis

US Airways expanded into the international market to take advantage of an increase in foreign travel to and from the United States. To provide for this expansion, US Airways purchased new wide-bodied aircrafts, upgraded the Philadelphia international terminal, and expanded international destinations (23). However, after September 11 international travel statistics changed. There was “a 23 percent decline in service” and “a 1.3 percent decline in the first half of 2001” (23). US Airways continued its growth of the international market despite these statistics. Furthermore, US Airways reported that its current strategy is “aimed at reducing operating expenses and increasing expansion of its international operation” (22).

International expansion is a challenging task for US Airways. The weak global and United States economies are the main challenge in successful expansion. The weak economy prevents individuals and businessmen from traveling because they do not have the disposable income to afford it. The reduced number of travelers leaves the new wide-bodied aircrafts with empty seats. These empty seats create financial strain for US Airways because it costs the same to fly a full plane as it does to fly one half empty.

Fuel prices also continue to increase (16). Flying the new bigger planes will become more expensive. Farther destinations require more fuel. To cover fuel expenses, passengers must purchase tickets. Demand, however, is on a decline due to the economy.

In addition to terrorist fears and the weak economy, a pending war with Iraq decreases demand. Consumers already hesitate to fly because of September 11. If a war is being fought, consumers will be less likely to travel abroad. The war will also influence fuel prices and the economy. Fuel prices will increase because the United States purchases fuel from the Middle East. Increased fuel prices will force airlines to raise ticket prices to cover the added expense. If consumers are not flying at current war-free prices, they will not purchase more expensive tickets during wartime.

War with Iraq will change the economy and, therefore, demand. During wartime, disposable income decreases because the prices for everyday items increase. There will be no extra money for business or vacation travel.

The support provided by US Airways to facilitate international expansion given current international travel statistics are ineffective. The purchase of new aircraft, an improved international hub, and more destinations in a time of declined travel are risky ventures. US Airways is unclear of the potential payoff from international expansion (23). The corporation is investing a great deal of money to expand internationally while not knowing if any possible benefits will result.

US Airways strategically analyzed the expansion before implementing the plan. The expansion, however, does not have clear benefits to US Airways and, in a time of financial struggle, uncertain ventures create uncertain outcomes. US Airways does not have the flexibility to get involved in a failing venture. International expansion involves many unknown variables. The company should have closely analyzed external factors, such as the economy and the supply and demand of travelers. US Airways should also have planned for possible surprises in the world, such as a war. International expansion with possible external threats should have been strategically examined more closely before investing in it.

The airline industry traditionally runs on a one percent to two percent margin (21). This low margin creates a challenge for airline companies because there is little room for error, and any small financial effect could be critical to an airline’s success.

The one to two percent margin impacts US Airways through its load factor. With each flight, US Airways should sell enough seats to achieve a breakeven point. The goal of the company is to fill the plane to an above breakeven point so that a profit will result (Profits, ACT 162). This is done through raising the number of paying passengers per flight, by lowering operating costs, or by lowering a portion of fixed costs (21). US Airways is trying to increase the number of paying passengers by increasing international flights and adjusting ticket prices to compete with other airlines. External factors, such as the economy, terrorism, and war, negatively impact the number of tickets purchased and make it difficult for the airline industry to attract passengers.

US Airways does not address the one to two percent industry margin effectively. When operating on a tight margin, airlines need to be prepared for any emergencies that could hurt or improve profits. US Airways did not have a clear plan on what to do if an emergency occurred. For example, when September 11 brought a decline in travelers, US Airways expanded flights. US Airways should have adjusted to the decline by concentrating on domestic flights instead of trying to expand. This assisted in the company’s current financial troubles.

Chapter 11 Bankruptcy

US Airways filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in August 2002 (26). The corporation was awarded $75 million to continue flying through September 2002 and submitted a reorganization plan on December 31, 2002 (26). In recent court hearings, US Airways submitted a reorganization plan and developed a timeline that included an emergence from bankruptcy target date for March 31, 2003 (See Appendix B, pp. 43-45).

Corporate reorganization under Chapter 11 bankruptcy code is a way for the debtor and creditors to create a plan. Under this reorganization plan, the debtor, US Airways, promises to pay a portion of their debts and is discharged from the balance of the debt (Bankruptcy, BUS 371). Important points of the reorganization plan include details of a $1 billion loan from the Air Transportation Stabilization Board, discussions with the pilots union, retirement plans, and reconstruction of the Board of Directors (See Appendix B, pp. 43-45).

US Airways filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy is an effective way to reorganize. Chapter 11 bankruptcy allows US Airways to reduce the amount of money owed to creditors and allows them to continue to operate. US Airways should create a long-term financial plan to ensure emergence success.

1. Executive Summary
2. SWOT Analysis
3. TOWS Diagram
4. IFE Matrix
5. EFE Matrix
6. SPACE Matrix
7. Critical Issues
8. Courses of Action
9. Financial Analysis

Related

• US Airways International Expansion
• US Airways TOWS Diagram
• US Airways EFE Matrix
• US Airways IFE Matrix
• US Airways SPACE Matrix
• US Airways Financial Analysis
• US Airways Swot Analysis
• US Airways Courses of Action

5

-5

2

-6

6

-2

1

-3

1

-3

1

16

-19

2.67

-3.8

-2

6

-4

5

-4

2

-5

1

-15

14

-3.75

3.5

The Strategic Position and Action Evaluation (SPACE) Matrix is used to provide a company with the type of plan it should take in its business actions. The matrix indicates whether a company should be aggressive, conservative, defensive or competitive. Financial strength and competitive advantage are two internal dimensions of the matrix. The two external dimensions are industry strength and environmental stability.

The matrix on US Airways, which can be found in (See Appendix F p. 52), demonstrates that it should take a defensive approach in handling its business. This is important because it sets the framework for US Airways’ strategic plan. It also helps by giving the company a vision of how to continue doing business in the present and the future. US Airways is in the defensive quadrant, which means that it should focus on its internal weaknesses and try to avoid external threats. One way that US Airways could accomplish this is by selling planes that are currently leased, which frees up assets. US Airways needs to stop expanding and look at downsizing. US Airways needs to become a size that can be managed and be financially supported. Once this is achieved and the company is financially stable, it can consider expansion.

1. Executive Summary
2. SWOT Analysis
3. TOWS Diagram
4. IFE Matrix
5. EFE Matrix
6. SPACE Matrix
7. Critical Issues
8. Courses of Action
9. Financial Analysis

Related

• US Airways IFE Matrix
• US Airways EFE Matrix
• US Airways Financial Analysis
• US Airways International Expansion
• US Airways TOWS Diagram
• US Airways Critical Issues
• US Airways Courses of Action
• US Airways Swot Analysis

Weight

Rating

Weighted score

0.20

1

0.20

0.06

3

0.18

0.07

4

0.28

0.10

4

0.40

0.02

3

0.06

0.02

3

0.06

0.03

1

0.03

0.03

1

0.03

0.02

2

0.04

0.12

2

0.24

0.02

2

0.04

0.05

4

0.20

0.02

1

0.02

0.02

2

0.04

0.02

1

0.02

0.01

2

0.02

0.06

3

0.18

0.03

2

0.06

0.03

2

0.06

0.02

2

0.04

0.02

2

0.04

0.05

2

0.10

1.00

2.34

“An EFE Matrix allows strategists to summarize and evaluate economic, social, cultural, demographic, environmental, political, governmental, legal, technological, and competitive information” (D 110). To create this matrix, the first step is to list the key external factors, or opportunities and threats. Each of which must be specific. After these are listed, they must be given “…a weight that ranges from 0.0 (not important) to 1.0 (very important)” (D 110). This weight is used to determine its importance to the company. When comparing opportunities and threats, opportunities are usually given a higher weight, except when threats can be devastating to the company. The sum of the weights must equal 1.0.

After assigning the weights, the factors then must be given a rating between 1 and 4. “4 = the response is superior, 3 = the response is above average, 2 = the response is average and 1 = the response is poor” (D 110-111). These are based on the company and how effective it is at dealing with the factors. To determine the weighted score, multiply the weight by the rating. The weighted scores tell how effective the company is working. “The average total weighted score is 2.5” (D 111).

The EFE matrix is a valuable way to look at how effective the company is working with its external factors. A matrix for US Airways, listed above, includes each of the threats and opportunities from both the SWOT analysis and the TOWS diagram. The most heavily weighted factors were: point-to-point flight patterns, governmental aid, and selling assets. Each of these is vital for to company.

There were very few that were given a 4. The three that did receive a four were, partnership, governmental aid, and the economy. After giving the weight and the rating of the factors, the weighted score displayed that US Airways evaluation of its key external factors was an average of 2.34.

1. Executive Summary
2. SWOT Analysis
3. TOWS Diagram
4. IFE Matrix
5. EFE Matrix
6. SPACE Matrix
7. Critical Issues
8. Courses of Action
9. Financial Analysis

Related

• US Airways IFE Matrix
• US Airways SPACE Matrix
• US Airways TOWS Diagram
• US Airways Critical Issues
• US Airways Financial Analysis
• US Airways International Expansion
• US Airways Swot Analysis
• US Airways Courses of Action

Weight

Rating

Weighted Score

0.11

4

0.44

0.04

3

0.12

0.01

3

0.03

0.07

4

0.28

0.04

3

0.12

0.05

3

0.15

0.10

1

0.10

0.13

1

0.13

0.06

1

0.06

0.00

2

0.00

0.04

2

0.08

0.01

2

0.02

0.02

2

0.04

0.05

1

0.05

0.04

2

0.08

0.03

2

0.06

0.06

1

0.06

0.08

1

0.08

0.06

1

0.06

1.00

1.96

This Internal Factor Evaluation Matrix (IFE) is used to summarize and evaluate the major strengths and weaknesses of US Airways by assigning numerical importance (D 149). Each factor has been given a weight to indicate the relative importance to US Airways’ success in the airline industry, ranging from 0.0 (not important) to 1.0 (all important) (D 149-150). Each factor has also been assigned a rating of one to four, which represents a major weakness, 1, minor weakness, 2, minor strength, 3, or major strength, 4 (D 150). The weighted score is the product of each factor’s weight and rating. The total weighted score can range from 1.0 to 4.0, with an average of 2.5 (D150). Weighted scores below 2.5 indicate that an organization is internally weak (D 150).

The IFE of US Airways results in a total weighted score of 1.96. This represents internal weakness, which is accurate based on the current internal struggles US Airways faces. According to the IFE matrix, the greatest internal weaknesses US Airways must resolve are high overhead and excessive assets.

1. Executive Summary
2. SWOT Analysis
3. TOWS Diagram
4. IFE Matrix
5. EFE Matrix
6. SPACE Matrix
7. Critical Issues
8. Courses of Action
9. Financial Analysis

Related

• US Airways EFE Matrix
• US Airways SPACE Matrix
• US Airways Financial Analysis
• US Airways International Expansion
• US Airways TOWS Diagram
• US Airways Critical Issues
• US Airways Courses of Action
• US Airways Swot Analysis

1. Variety of planes/ excessive assets
2. East coast dominance
3. Financial recognition of instability
4. Customer satisfaction
5. Competition
6. New CEO

1. Excessive assets
2. High overhead
3. Unprofitable flights
4. Grew too fast
5. Location of hubs
6. Resignation of CEO
7. Poor employee morale
8. Bankruptcy
9. Poor customer service
10. Non aggressive competition
11. Breakdown of merger with United
12. No contingency plan or vision
13. Plane crashes

1. Point to point flight patterns
2. Guaranteed money after bankruptcy
3. Partnership
4. Governmental aid
5. Increased consumer confidence
6. Stronger economy
7. Increase in bond rates
8. Decrease in interest rates
9. New technology
10. Chapter 11 bankruptcy
11. Selling assets
12.  New government   regulation

1. Size efficiency (S1, O1)
2. Reorganization with new CEO (S6, O10)
3. Possible financial gains (S3, O2, O4, O7, O8)
4. Expansion of East Coast dominance west with point to point flights (S2, O1)
5. Merging with another company (S3, S5, O3)
6. Sell bonds (S3, O7, O8)
7. Expand into freight industry (S1, O3, O6, O11)
8. Recruit CEO and executives (S6, O3, O10)
9. Regulations can promote fair competition (S5, O12)

1. Eliminate or restructure hubs (W5, O1, O11)
2. Save money by flying point to point and free up money by selling assets to increase liquidity (W1, W2, O1, O11)
3. Create strategic planning standards (W11, W12, O10, O3)
4. Use point-to-point flights to increase profitability (W3, W5, O1)
5. New technology will make business more consumer friendly (W9, O9)
6. Stronger economy will make breakeven more attainable (W2, O6)
7. Asset sales will restructure company size (W4, O11)
8. Restructuring after bankruptcy can promote employee morale and positive leadership (W6, W7, W8, W10, O2)
9. Can recover from bankruptcy through governmental aid, consumer or employee purchased bonds (W8, O4, O5, O7, O8, O12)

1. Economy
2. Demand for air travel
3. Web conferencing
4. International threats
5. War with Iraq
6. Terrorism
7. Oil / Fuel cost
8. Labor
9. Union strikes
10. ALPA cap flights
11. Government
12. Competition

1. Recognition of poor economy/cut throat competition with limited customers (S3, S4, S5, T1, T5, T6, T12)
2. Fluctuating fuel prices indirectly proportional to competition and customer satisfaction (S1, S4, S5, T5, T7)
3. New CEO can improve labor and union relations (S6, T8, T9)
4. Limited flight selection and regulations (S4, T10, T11)
5. Union more willing to negotiate (S4, T8, T9)
6. New CEO can promote East Coast air travel through business deals by discounting air fare to discourage web conferencing (S2, S6, T2, T3)

1. With expense increase, profits decrease and assets are harder to maintain (W1, W3, T7, T8, T12)
2. Poor employee morale can promote strike, which results in poor customer service falter (W7, W9, T9)
3. Terrorists hijackings (W13, T6)
4. Lack of aggressive competition results in lack of market share (W10, T2, T12)
5. High overhead, possible warfare, terrorism, international threats, and struggling economy decreases demand for air travel, which results in unprofitable flights (W2, W3, T1, T2, T4, T5, T6, T10, T11)
6. Hub expansion in a geographically close market decreased need for flying  (W4, W5, T2)

1. Executive Summary
2. SWOT Analysis
3. TOWS Diagram
4. IFE Matrix
5. EFE Matrix
6. SPACE Matrix
7. Critical Issues
8. Courses of Action
9. Financial Analysis

Related

• US Airways IFE Matrix
• US Airways EFE Matrix
• US Airways Critical Issues
• US Airways Swot Analysis
• US Airways Financial Analysis
• US Airways International Expansion
• US Airways Courses of Action
• US Airways SPACE Matrix

Variety of Planes

US Airways owns a variety of planes: 767s, 737s, and 727s, A330s, and A320s (22). The variety of aircrafts allow for more flexibility, versatility, mobility in passenger load options, and operating costs. A wide variety of planes provide the flexibility of matching the load capacity with the area of demand. The company attempts to match the aircraft to seat supply and route demand to increase the load factor. “This type of aircraft offers great flexibility since it has smaller capacity, is significantly more efficient to operate, and has a shorter turnaround time than larger aircraft” (22). If a route has less demand, a smaller aircraft can be used to increase capacity in order to meet the breakeven point of the aircraft. This helps US Airways reach their primary goal: “…to move load factor above the breakeven point into the profit range” (21).

The wide variety also allows for expansion and exploration into other routes because different size planes are readily available. The agreement between US Airways and Airbus allows modernization of their old aircraft to the new A320s (22). The new A320s are more fuel-efficient and replace the older aircraft with younger assets. The average age of US Airways’ planes as of 2001 are 9.1 years to 9.6 years (16). The younger assets require less expenditure for repair and maintenance (Assets, ACT 161).

Another benefit of having a variety of planes and excessive assets is to use the excess as leverage to free up money. The planes can be sold along with their lease in order to free up cash to pay debts and relieve some of the current expenses and costs (Leases, Debt, Expenses, ACT 161).

East Coast Dominance

US Airways uses the hub system which “…ideally allows any airline to fly passengers to any destination on the globe…The hub system also allows airlines to feed passengers from small markets into the carrier’s transcontinental and international routes, thus allowing competition in these markets as well” (20-21). The hubs are bunched together geographically on the East Coast allowing for market domination. The close market can promote lower expenses because ticket sales can be lowered with less interference from outside competition (Product Pricing, BUS 340). “By offering the lowest priced fares to a destination, an airline hopes to lure customers from competitors and even increase the amount of overall passenger traffic by attracting passengers who would not have considered air travel under a higher pricing structure” (21). Once market domination of the East Coast is prosperous, then the financial advantage can be used to integrate, expand and dominate westward.

US Airways’ short international express flights are making the most profit for the company. The flights from Washington, D.C. to New York and Baltimore to Boston are convenient routes for East Coast businesses. “…Revenue may be generated…by increasing profitability on the core routes to cover underperformance on other routes” (21).

Brand Loyalty

Businesses and US Airways’ consumers have strong brand loyalty to the air carrier. Although there has been a decline in air travel demand due to a slow economy and low consumer confidence, US Airways’ consumers reveal their loyalty through website comments (See Appendix A, pp.40-42). Customer satisfaction is high even though US Airways’ financial position is declining.

Airbus also opened an avenue of revenue and lowered operational costs by: lowering training costs, providing better fuel efficiency, lowering maintenance costs and providing longer operational ranges. The A320 Airbus aircraft offers more flexibility and reduced employee training costs and crew expenses (22). One way to improve their financial position is to decrease losses in operational expenses.

Financial

US Airways is aware of their current market decline and financial instability. This is deemed a strength because the company is using their position to implement changes and new organizational plans to correct the situation. The government passed legislation that freed US Airways of some of its expenses by “federalizing security.” The September 11 terrorist attacks pushed Congress to pass legislation and provide $14 billion to the airline industry (26).

Other actions that freed up cash are: consolidation of flights, a 23% cut in service, and decrease in routes. The postponement of shipping, and deferment of new A320s and A330s freed up cash. Also, the failed merger between United and US Airways provided $50 million to US Airways.

Competitive Advantage

US Airways provides strong competition to its competitors: Southwest, Delta Airlines, Jet Blue, Spirit Airlines, and Air Tran Airway to name a few. US Airways uses marketing to beat competition with fare reduction. “Fare wars” allow airlines to compete for market share and market dominance (Product Pricing, BUS 340). Offering low prices can draw in customers and increase load capacity (21). Fare reduction is the most common form of competitive strategy used by most airlines.

CEO/ Management

The current CEO David Siegel is a strong asset to US Airways. He is a strong negotiator and a good salesman. Siegel is known in the industry as a “master dealer.” Siegel will be a strong force as a leader for US Airways. The reorganization plan includes recruitment of new management and board members (Appendix B, pp.43-45). Change and leadership can be a strong force in the success of a company. A good CEO can make or break a company. Sam Walton is an example of a CEO that made a company what it is today. Leadership and management have a direct impact on the success of a company (HR communication, BUS 420).

Weaknesses

Excessive Assets

US Airways acquired approximately 400 Airbus planes since 1999. Some of these planes were purchased and others leased. Although excessive assets can be considered a strength for most airlines, for US Airways, it is a weakness. US Airways is paying a large amount of money for its leased planes, most of which are not being used. This directly affects the load factor, the percentage of filled seats on any given flight (21). However, US Airways’ main goal “…is to move “load factor” above the breakeven point into profit range” (21). US Airways’ inability to fill the seats is unprofitable for the company. The company is unable to produce at the breakeven point and, as a result, supply will not equal demand on the flights that they are trying to use (Supply and Demand, ECN 101). This causes the company to have a high overhead. The high overhead was a result of the growth of the company. The company grew too big in a short amount of time, which caused its supply to exceed its demand.

US Airways has an excessive number of planes to use for the few passengers that are boarding its planes. The load factor below breakeven causes most of the flights to be unprofitable. US Airways merged and acquired too much property within a short amount of time. However, the cancelled merger with United Airlines in 2000 caused the airline to put a stop to its growth. However this turned out to be a good idea for the airline, which was already experiencing problems in the financial area.

Location and size of Hubs

Most airline companies use a hub system that allows them to carry passengers around the globe (20). However, the hub system has changed and now causes passengers to make stops at various hubs and board transfer flights. US Airways follows this type of system, but its hubs are smaller than other airline hubs. Not as many planes can fit into them, which creates a bottleneck for the transfer of passengers (21).

Another weakness of US Airways’ hub system, is its East Coast locations, some of these include: Baltimore, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh. These hubs are located too geographically close to one another on the East Coast. By using this type of hub system, US Airways cannot defend itself and its route system from competitors (21). If US Airways relocated some or most of its hubs, it would be able to create a more efficient hub system. This allows the company to possibly move off the East Coast and expand into the West, which would allow US Airways to compete more efficiently with its major competitors. If they decided on this course of action, it would require the company to create a different strategy of both management and marketing.

Resignation of CEO

Rakesh Gangwal’s unexpected resignation in 2001 is a weakness of US Airways. Gangwal’s chief strengths under the current conditions were his attention to detail, airline industry, economics, and critical requirements (26). Stephen Wolf, a master dealmaker, replaced Gangwal. Gangwal was unable to make the company more successful and financially stable. Looking at the daily operations of the company was not one of Wolf’s strengths (26). This could be the main reason why US Airways does not have a contingency or vision plan. If the company is unable to look into the future or see the outlook of how its decisions will directly affect the company, it will be unable to choose any course of action that will create a stronger company.

Poor Employee Morale

Not only did US Airways have to deal with the unexpected resignation of CEO Gangwal, but with poor employee morale as well. After the September 11 incidents, and with business already declining, US Airways laid off 25 percent (11,000) of its employees (23). After the layoff, most of the employees still working lost many of their benefits and other incentives for working hard. In the end, this created a team of employees that had lost their desire to work hard for a company that they knew was having problems surviving.

Loss of Customers

There are various reasons why US Airways has been losing customers for a couple years. One major reason is that, after September 11, it stopped flights to numerous locations. Without a variety of locations that a customer can fly to and depart from, the customer base began to decrease because other competitors had the locations and flights customers wanted. Also, without these locations, US Airways is unable to compete with the airlines that were flying to more locations. US Airways is failing to use an aggressive approach to compete with other airlines. Without a stronger approach, many customers choose to take other airlines because their names are more recognizable, and they have more locations to which they can fly. An example of this is with Southwest Airlines, US Airways’ major competitor. Since US Airways has locations only on the East Coast, Southwest took over most of the West Coast. Southwest has non-stop flights, which most customers enjoy more. “…Southwest forced US Airways to essentially abandon its service to north-south California routes” (24). They also entered the market in Baltimore, one of US Airways’ hubs. This caused US Airways to eliminate 51 of its 75 mainland routes. If US Airways had been more aggressive against its main competitor, these routes would never have been abandoned.

Plane Crashes

Although plane crashes do not occur very often, there is still a chance one will happen. With all the problems that US Airways has been experiencing over the last few years, an unexpected plane crash of any sort would put the company out of business. While there is no way of ensuring that US Airways will never experience a plane crash, it is in its best interest that they should not. Not only would US Airways lose an asset, but they would also lose many of their repeat customers and many new ones as well. Since September 11, many people are still anxious about flying and watching another plane crash would push most people over the edge. This would cause many people to drive to their destinations, or cause them to just stay at home. If this happened, it would cause US Airways to lose more money, pushing them further into bankruptcy or out of business all together.

Bankruptcy

Each of the weaknesses explained above has been a direct influence on US Airways’ filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy (Bankruptcy, BUS 371). Since 2000, after the failed merger with United Airlines, they have lost a total of $7.81 billion in assets and $7.83 billion in liabilities, most of which occurred in 2001 after the September 11 incident; a total of 2.11 billion in 2001(Appendix C, pp. 46-47).

Opportunities

The airline industry is one that is affected by many external factors. A change in fuel prices, by mere pennies, can force companies into bankruptcy. Even with the amount of debt that US Airways has acquired, it has many opportunities available. With strategic planning, help from the government, and a little luck, US Airways could once again see profits, market dominance, and growth internationally.

Point-to-Point

One opportunity that is available to US Airways is the use of point-to-point flying instead of their already established hub-and-spoke flight patterns. There are many positive outcomes from this change. Customers prefer to get on one plane and arrive at their destination, rather than have a layover. There would be more profit from this type of system because less fuel would be needed, fewer employees, and fewer airplanes. Costs would be lowered, therefore; ticket prices could be lowered. Fewer layovers and the lowered ticket prices could increase the number of customers flying with US Airways. The hub-and-spoke system worked for US Airways when it was seeing profits and there was more people flying. Today, it is costly, inefficient, and more of a burden on time-conscious travelers. This change will not happen overnight. It will take up to a year to change the type of system used. Changing one flight at a time can do this.

Changing from a hub-and-spoke system to a point-to-point system is an internal opportunity. However, it’s highly dependant on many external factors. Some of these factors include money from the government and investors, the views and attitudes of the customers, the cost of fuel, and the economy. One downside to this change is the transition of the employees. Many employees are trained and prefer the already established system. “Resistance to change can be considered the single greatest threat to successful strategic implementation” (D 254).

Partnerships

Another opportunity that would improve US Airways’ current condition is a partnership with a financially stable company (Partnerships, BUS 130). There are many companies that could become a partner with US Airways, one such company is FedEx. There are many obvious benefits from this action. The greatest advantage would be financially. With some solid financial backing, US Airways will be able to get back on its feet quicker. The idea of a partnership would prove beneficial for US Airways. If the government wants to keep perfect competition and avoid monopolies, then they would grant more funding and loans to US Airways.

Government

Without governmental funding, US Airways would have been another business that failed. When US Airways was in the middle of hard times in July 2002, the government granted them a federal loan of $900 million (See Appendix D, pp. 48-50). One downside to governmental funding is company image (Consumer Perception, BUS 340). If they keep receiving outrageous amounts of money, consumers will start to see US Airways as a money pit. After the September 11 tragedies, the government aided the airline industry monetarily. Following the aftermath of September 11, people were upset that their tax dollars went to independent companies. Without airline companies, our country would simply shut down.

Another governmental opportunity is the fact that John McCain is proposing a change to the Railway Labor Act. This new proposal would make it hard for unions to get wage increases (See Appendix E, p.51). The proposal would lock union members in at a certain wage. The wage freeze would help to keep US Airways’ labor costs down.

Consumer Confidence

An opportunity for every business today is the increase in consumer confidence (Consumer Confidence and Buying Power, BUS 341). Without consumers’ spending money, no company would survive. With the poor economy and September 11 tragedies, consumers are watching where they spend their money. As we move further and further away from September 11, people are starting to forget about terrorism and some risks that are involved with flying.

Another opportunity that US Airways can take advantage of is the fact that bond rates are high and interest rates are low right now. This would allow US Airways to refinance some of its debt to lock-in lower rates. US Airways could take advantage of high bond rates by selling bonds to investors. This would be a great opportunity because bonds are safer than stocks; in that they are secured and have a maturity date some years down the road (Corporate Bonds and Stocks, BUS 361).

Technology

Another industry wide opportunity is technology. US Airways can take advantage of outside technology. Simple advances, such as making reservations by the Internet, will help boost sales. New accessories are becoming available as well; these accessories would make flying more convenient. An example of a newly added accessory would be the complete workstation. More personal televisions, along with satellite radio, would be a welcomed attraction for flyers. This is extremely important to US Airways right now because with the addition of new accessories and technology, business travelers will insist on traveling with US Airways.

Not long ago, US Airways filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. To fulfill this, US Airways had to file a report on its debt and its expected courses of action. The continuation of this filing is a huge opportunity for US Airways to get its feet back on the ground. While filing for bankruptcy, US Airways will be protected from creditors. Along with the completion of this filing, US Airways will have some of their debt forgiven (Chapter 11 Bankruptcy, BUS 371 / ACT 162). This gives US Airways an upper hand when negotiating with the union. US Airways’ employees are among the highest paid in the industry (See Appendix D, pp. 48-50). With the approval of their Chapter 11 filing, the pilots union will be forced to work with lower salaries because of the condition that the company is in currently.

Outside Capital

A final opportunity for US Airways is the promise of money after bankruptcy. The Texas Pacific Group has promised to provide US Airways with a $200 million investment in the new equity of the airline on its emergence from bankruptcy (See Appendix C, pp.46-47). This is money that US Airways does not have right now. However, if everything goes smoothly, it will have this money to further its investing. This allows leverage when finalizing finances. US Airways can take money away from investing and use it to pay off some debt because that money will be replaced upon the end of its bankruptcy.

A strategic plan is one thing that US Airways does not have, and because of that, US Airways is suffering. Opportunities in the airline industry are very uncertain. No one really knows if gasoline prices or consumer confidence will increase. Looking at US Airways’ past actions, it seems as if US Airways is going with a hit or miss theory. The company cut benefits and laid people off, that did not free up enough funds. So, now, US Airways is starting to cut some unprofitable flights. With all of its opportunities, even if it takes advantage of them, US Airways needs to be aggressive and regain market share. With spring and summer approaching, competition in the airline industry is only going to get tighter. The companies who take advantage of their opportunities and plan strategically will prove most profitable.

Threats

Economy

One of US Airways’ most important external threats is the current state of the world economy. The U.S. economy, which is believed to be in a recession, is one of the primary external forces that a company needs to focus on, especially if the business is one that has difficulty producing revenues in a downturn (External Forces, BUS 130, 230, 380).

Demand for Air Travel

As a subset of economy, the demand for air travel is a large threat currently facing US Airways. With the economy slowed, consumers with low disposable income or fixed income are unable to afford ticket prices, which drives the number of people willing to fly (demand) down (Discretionary Income, ECN 101). Demand becomes a threat because when demand is low US Airways will still incur high fixed costs with little revenue to cover the cost.

The demand for business related travel has also fallen as businesses try to save cash during the downturn. “Business traffic comprises 50 percent of airline traffic but generates 65 percent of ticket revenue” (25). Employers are sending employees to fewer seminars, or sending one delegate to attend and teach the material upon returning instead of sending multiple employees. “An economy in recession requires less business travel,” and businesses are using cheaper methods in response to cash crunches (25). Web conferencing allows businesses to conduct meetings across the nation without having to fly employees to the site.

Possible War with Iraq

War with Iraq is an important threat because customers will be less likely to travel to international destinations for fear of being civilian targets. War with Iraq, a member of OPEC, will cause Iraqi oil exports to decline and supply to drop. In addition, the military will be using more oil to fight a war, affecting supply. The result of both a decline in exports and an increase in usage will be a rise in oil prices, and fuel expenses for US Airways (Supply and Demand, ECN 102).

Any company that competes internationally must focus on the current political issues abroad that may hinder business in the future. Businesses should develop contingency plans on how to operate internationally when political instability occurs in other areas of the world (Contingency Planning, BUS 230).

Oil and Oil Producing Exporting Countries

Oil and OPEC can be a threat to US Airways whether or not the United States goes to war with Iraq. OPEC has the ability to control production of 13 oil-exporting countries. This allows OPEC to move oil and, subsequently, fuel prices as it chooses. As stated before, because OPEC can control supply, they can cause the price of fuel to increase, costing US Airways more in fuel expenses (Supply and Demand, ECN 102).

Possible Acts of Terrorism

Possible terrorist activity will greatly affect the number of people willing to travel domestically and internationally. The airline industry is still being affected by the September 11 terrorist attacks, which resulted in a large drop in air travel demand. If terrorist activity, across the globe, starts to become a problem again, US Airways will likely see a drop in ticket sales, which will cause revenues to decline.

Union Strikes

US Airways’ most costly expense is the amount of money it pays for personnel. Unions have strong negotiating positions inside companies because of their ability to stop production or services with walkouts and strikes (Organized Labor’s Rights, BUS 372, 420, DSP 326).

A potential strike by union workers at US Airways is a critical threat to the company’s success. Strikes by the pilots union, flight attendants union, and mechanics union can cause stoppages on many of US Airways’ flight routes. These unions will strike if they feel they are not receiving fair pay, benefits, safe working conditions, and other possible rewards (Compensation Packages, Union Grievances, BUS 420, DSP 326).

Air Line Pilots Association Region Flight Cap

The Air Line Pilots Association currently has a cap on the number of flights their pilots can fly on long region routes. The ALPA has limited the flights to address the pay equality of pilots who run these routes, which are on US Airways Express. The ALPA poses a threat if they continue to put pressure on US Airways Express, US Airways’ only current profitable division, because the higher labor costs will only add to US Airways’ cash problems.

Government Assistance and Stoppage of Federal Aid

The United States government, if they choose not to assist the airline industry any further, may be a threat to US Airways’ ability to turn the company around. Federal aid has been given to the industry in relief from the outcome from the September 11 terrorist attacks, which grounded all aircraft for a number of days causing the industry to lose billions in revenues. A stoppage in government aid may prevent US Airways from being able to emerge from Chapter 11 bankruptcy.

Cut Throat Competition

The current state of the economy has had similar effects on all major United States air carriers. All carriers have been using fare reduction pricing strategies to lure customers from rival airlines. This poses a threat because some carriers may have lower breakeven points allowing them to use a price leading strategy when pricing tickets (Price Leading Strategy, Breakeven, BUS 340, ACT 161). US Airways may not be able to cut fares as low as its competition because of its high breakeven point, caused by its large amount of overhead. Therefore, competitive forces could force US Airways out of business.

US Airways can try to affect only a few of these external threats. Any action taken by the company will not have any impact on the economy, but US Airways does have the ability to affect demand for air travel in some instances through fare reduction activities. US Airways also has the ability to negotiate with their unions, which they have minimal control over. The only other threat that US Airways can have a chance at eliminating is how the competition affects the company. The other threats are largely out of US Airways’ control, but still need to be watched to help US Airways with contingency planning.

1. Executive Summary
2. SWOT Analysis
3. TOWS Diagram
4. IFE Matrix
5. EFE Matrix
6. SPACE Matrix
7. Critical Issues
8. Courses of Action
9. Financial Analysis

Related

• US Airways Financial Analysis
• Robin Hood SWOT Analysis and Strategy Recommendations
• US Airways SPACE Matrix
• US Airways International Expansion
• US Airways EFE Matrix
• US Airways IFE Matrix
• US Airways TOWS Diagram
• US Airways Critical Issues

- Thomas L. Friedman, in “Longitudes and Attitudes”

While it can be argued that globalization is not a new phenomenon, the nature of modern globalization is, in fact, completely different than the traditional exchange of ideas, people and goods through an excruciatingly slow process. Moving at an almost uncontrollable speed, the transfer of people, ideas, money, and goods primarily through technological advancements, has resulted in the formation of a new global power structure. In his highly popularized book, “Longitudes and Attitudes,” Thomas Friedman delineates the new international power structure under globalization. Breaking down this structure in to three main power balances, Friedman lists the first type of balance as the “traditional balance of power between nation-states,” with the United States as the sole hegemon or superpower.^[2] The second power balance that emerged from globalization is between “nation-states and global markets;” Friedman labels the major financial centers around the world – Wall Street, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, and London – as the “Supermarkets.”^[3] The third, and perhaps most pertinent of the power balances is the balance between “individuals and nation-states.” The availability of the internet worldwide has allowed individuals to communicate with one another, or transfer money, over great distances in the mere click of a mouse, giving the individual unprecedented power. Friedman labels these people as “super-empowered individuals.”^[4] Thus, under globalization, there are power struggles between states, the superpower of the United States in particular; between nation-states and supermarkets; and between both states and supermarkets and super-empowered individuals.

In order to begin to understand the events of September 11, 2001, it is necessary to step beyond the traditional notion of balance of power and into the new system of multiple actors influencing multiple power structures, creating what Maryann Cusimano Love calls, a new set of “transsovereign” problems. It is this current form of globalization that “gives breakdowns in state authority and capacity and transsovereign problems greater reach, speed, intensity, and impact.”^[5] September 11th is one of many recent conflicts whose genesis arose from perceived political, cultural and economic threats to certain “super-empowered individuals,” facilitated by open economies, societies, and most importantly, technologies created through globalization. The first section of this essay will discuss the perceived threats and how these threats were manipulated by Osama bin Laden and other actors in order to gain support for their terrorist acts. The second section will look at the aspects of globalization that facilitated and intensifiedthe terrorist activities of September 11th. The third, and final section will analyze the implications that September 11th has had on global peace and world conflict.

Perceived Threats

“Injustice is inflicted on us and on you [Western people] by your politicians.”^[6]

- Osama bin Laden

Some proponents of globalization – or “hyperglobalizers” as Manfred Steger labels them – may argue that globalization, through the promotion and internationalization of free trade, and the liberalization of financial transactions, is a means of reducing poverty globally and creating a global community. While it is true that some states have benefitted from economic globalization, it is impossible to ignore the gaping differences in wealth between developed and developing nations. Peter Dicken attributes these global economic inequalities to historical, political, economic, and social variations both between the developed and developing worlds, and more importantly among developing countries themselves.^[7]The asymmetry of wealth that is created leads other scholars to view globalization as “neoimperialism wearing Bill Gates’s face and Mickey Mouse’s ears, extending the web of global capitalism’s exploitation of women, minorities, the poor, and developing regions.”^[8] It is this exploitative and imperialistic aspect of globalization that al Qaeda used as propaganda against the West, and the United States in particular. Love describes the attacks of September 11th as a visual metaphor of this argument in which “planes piloted by hijackers from the developing world attacked symbols of international corporate wealth and control and U.S. military power.”^[9]

The intentions of al Qaeda must, however, be taken into question – Were they frustrated with disparities in wealth, or was this simply a manipulative recruiting mechanism? Was bin Laden sincere in his denouncement of the rich, corrupt, “hereditary and hypocritical” Arab regimes? The answer to both of these questions can be deducted from three pieces of information: 1). “most of the hijackers were young Saudis;” 2). “the main financing for Osama bin Laden – a Saudi – has been coming from other wealthy Saudis;” 3). and finally “Saudi Arabia’s government was the main funder of the Taliban.”^[10] It has become clear that the September 11th terrorists did not destroy the American symbol of financial power because they were poor; but rather, they strategically used the greed of U.S. politicians and their support for these corrupt Arab governments to gain support from masses of poor Arab citizens. In the PBS televised special, “Broken Promises” hosted by Bill Moyers, Vandana Shiva argues that globalization is a system of dispossessing the poor through the greed of large American multinational corporations such as Coca-Cola.^[11] Why target the United States as the sole factor in this process of dispossession when the Taliban created a backwards society in which women were deprived of all basic universal rights, only furthering the poverty levels of the already poorcitizens? Perhaps this question can be more adequately answered through a cultural perspective.

Before delving into the complexities of cultural aspects of globalization, it is first necessary to establish a comprehensive definition of cultural globalization. Steger defines the phenomenon as “the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the globe.”^[12] Similar to the economic globalization debate, cultural globalization is sometimes viewed as a means of strengthening local cultures or creating a global culture through which diversity can be embraced. This view was obviously not taken by Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda. It is through the perceived threat of cultural imperialism and homogenization that these terrorists justify their hatred for the West, and more specifically the United States. Steger explains how this “Americanization” can lead to a political and cultural “‘Jihad’ – the parochial impulse to reject and repel the homogenizing forces of the West wherever they can be found…Jihad draws on the furies of religious fundamentalism and ethnonationalism which constitute the dark side of cultural particularism.”^[13] Religious authorities in many Muslim countries have established education systems that breed hatred for non-Muslim societies and result in a stagnant and unreformed Islam. It is through this antimodernism that fundamentalists such as Osama bin Laden can appeal to Muslims of all ages such as the twelve year-old Afghan refugee interviewed by Friedman, who when asked about his reaction to the terrorist attacks of September 11th answered: “I am pleased that America has had to face pain, because the rest of the world has tasted its pain…[Americans] are unbelievers and do not like to befriend Muslims, and they want to dominate the world with their power.”^[14] The brainwashing of young minds has allowed these perceived threats of “Americanization” to transform from tolerance to terrorism with September 11th as the most obvious realization of these ideals. It is virtually impossible to discuss Muslim culture without mentioning the politics of these states.

The governments, and government structures of many Arab-Muslim nations are shaped, at least in part, by these traditionalist, fundamentalist religious institutions. While the actual governments are predominantly “secular autocratic regimes,” it is through convenient agreements that these increasingly unpopular regimes remain in power and the religious authorities have control over both religion and education.^[15] As long as these autocratic regimes remain in power, there will be an overarching dominant religious sector promoting antimoderism and anti-Americanism, and allowing any perceived political threats to spiral into aggressive actions. Such resentment is a product of years of “political, social, economic, and human degradation,” that is only further exacerbated by external factors.^[16]

United States military presence across the world, especially in Saudi Arabia, combined with the blatantly selective nature of both U.S. political support and condemnation that has provoked the “super-empowered individuals,” such as bin Laden to crusade against American imperialism. By supporting authoritarian regimes in pro-American states, and forcing democracy upon authoritarian regimes that are anti-American, United States politicians are simply aggravating both sets of states – the entire populations of the anti-American nations due to U.S. hypocrisy, and the citizens of pro-American nations due to the U.S. support of repressive regimes. This sentiment is articulated by Friedman when he says that “the Bush policy today is to punish its enemies with the threat of democracy and rewards its friends with silence on democratization. That’s a surefire formula for giving democracy a bad name.”^[17] It precisely this bad name of both democracy and the United States, combined with extremist religious cultures that has been a driving factor of anti-American sentiments among the populations of many Muslim nations.

Globalization – Facilitation and Intensification

“Terrorism depends on surprise to gain attention and generate fear, so terrorists must constantly be innovative in their means of attack or they lose the power to shock.”

-Martha Crenshaw and Maryann Cusimano Love, in “Networked Terror”

Terrorism has had many definitions over the course of history and within different groups, however, a general understanding of the concept’s current application is necessary in order to understand the catalyzing effects of globalization on terrorism, particularly al Qaeda’s aggression towards the United States on September 11, 2001. A general, and widely accepted framework for terrorism is “the use of violence against noncombatants, generally by nonstate actors to generate fear in furtherance of other political goals.”^[18]The most obvious aspect of globalization that facilitated and intensified the antagonistic actions of Osama bin Laden and his followers is technology.

The advent and spread of global media played a pivotal role in heightening terrorist frustrations, as well as providing an outlet for these terrorist to spread their message. The availability of Western programs all over the world – the Arab world being no exception – is an example of the aforementioned cultural imperialism that is considered a threat to many critics of Americanism. The global media has also facilitated terrorist efforts by allowing them to broadcast their message internationally – the infamous bin Laden tape is the most notable of these efforts. As modern technology spread to the more advanced of the developing countries, it became easier for different television networks all around the world to exchange footage and in this particular case, allowed for the rapid airing of the bin Laden tape.^[19] The condemnation and, in some cases, the banning of these global media sources in combination with the subsequent embracement and utilization of these resources as a tool is quite hypocritical and demonstrate the dependence of al Qaeda on advanced, Western-developed technologies.

The terrorists of September 11th used sources of technology other than the media, in particular common everyday items such as cellular phones, television, radio and computers in order to communicate and coordinate their intricate plots. The internet, perhaps the most influential and commonly used source of technology has raised the quantity, distance and speed of information, goods, and idea shared to unprecedented levels. Mohamed Atta, a hijacker and one of the masterminds behind the September 11th attacks used his laptop and the American Airlines website to reserve his ticket, while some of this fellow hijackers used Travelocity.com.^[20] These technologies have created a compression of time and space that have been a defining characteristic of globalization – a characteristic that makes globalization a nearly unavoidable phenomenon.

September 11th – Global Peace and World Conflict

“Where there should be a nation-state, there is a vacuum filled by warlords. What better place for the seeds of international terrorism and lawlessness to take root?

-Walter H. Kansteiner, U.S. Assistant Secretary for African Affairs

Modern globalization, and the resulting international balance of power structure – the balance of power between states; the balance of power between states and “supermarkets;” and the balance of power between both states and supermarkets and the “super-empowered individual” – are phenomenons that have changed the nature of world conflict, making these conflicts inevitably more global in their scope. Susan Strange argues that state existence is being threatened by the globalization of the arms trade and the availability of technology has given power to nonstate actors, which has extracted the power of force from both strong and weak states. While conflicts were once wars between nation-states, they have evolved into conflicts between state and nonstate actors, or states and individuals, where the opponents do not engage in face-to-face combat but often have faceless enemies whose mere existence is perceived as threatening. September 11th has further perpetuated this trend by justifying, in the minds of many Americans, a war against “terrorism” – an idea, a product of globalization. The current war in Iraq has lost the vision of fighting against this idea that threatened American “freedom,” and has evolved into a war of excuses – the United States has used the promotion of democracy as an excuse to topple Saddam Hussein’s regime, while supporting the tyrannical, pro-American, regimes in Saudi Arabia and Egypt. The leaders of the United States are not protecting the ideology of democracy, but rather the ideology of hypocrisy and injustice.

While the scope of conflict has been widened to a global scale, some optimists may argue that the possibility of peaceful solutions to these conflicts is also widened. It is through the very technologies that have catalyzed conflict that peace can be realized – with the compression of space and time, communication between opponents is facilitated, along with the ability for third party mediators to join the peace process. Perhaps a more realistic view on the effects of September 11th on global peace is presented by Friedman when he quotes Adrian Karatnycky, the president of Freedom House:

“…many of the terrorists we are not confronting are a Western phenomenon, existing inside the Islamic diaspora that is an established fact of life in the U.S. and Europe…and this means that the war against terrorism will require relentless efforts within the borders of the West, even as it is prosecuted in the far-flung outposts of the Islamic world. It means that networks of terrorists may well be found among students and scholars who today walk the halls of Western universities and congregate after hours in sundry political and ‘religious’ groups, not as ‘sleepers’ ready to act under orders, but as Islamic radicals minted right here.”^[21]

Globalization has been the source of extensive debate – does globalization bring promise or problems, peace or war, tolerance or hatred, homogenization or difference? By dissecting the events of September 11, 2001 it is clear that the fusion of perceived threats catalyzed by globalization and fundamentalist propaganda have proven to be a catastrophic combination, resulting in the most shocking terrorist attacks in modern history. Under the new system of power balances, with “supermarkets” and “super-empowered individuals” colliding with each other and with states, we begin to see “issues that are domestic in consequence but international in scope,” resulting in new types of world conflict and new challenges for global peace.^[22]

Bibliography

^[11] Bill Moyers, Broken Promises. 60 min. Public Broadcasting Service, April 2005. Videocassette.

^[6] Loretta Napoleoni, Terror Incorporated: Tracing the Dollars Behind the Terror Networks (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2005).

^{[5] [12] [19]} Manfred Steger, Globalization: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).

^{[8] [9] [18] [22]} Maryann Cusimano Love, Beyond Sovereignty: Issues for a Global Agenda, 2d ed. (Australia: Thomson Wadsworth, 2003).

^[7] Peter Dicken, Global Shift: Reshaping the Global Economic Map in the 21st Century (New York: The Guilford Press, 2003).

^{[1] [2] [3] [4] [10] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [20] [21]} Thomas L. Friedman, Longitudes and Attitudes: The World in the Age of Terrorism (New York: Anchor Books, 2002).

Related

The Roman Empire of the times of late antiquity was an establishment grown old, its knees giving out, and in the west, about to fall. The empire had seen large-scale Christian persecution followed by large-scale enforced-Christianity. The economy of this time was in peril. As J.M. Wallace-Hadrill puts it in his book, The Barbarian West: The Early Middle Ages a.d. 400-1000 (Harper & Row Publishers, New York, 1962), “the defense in depth of an immense frontier had combined with the need to exploit all food-producing land to make every able-bodied man the object of strict and anxious state-supervision. But…the more rigidly men were pinned down to their war-time tasks the less able society proved to adapt itself to a rapidly changing situation” (Wallace-Hadrill, pg.9). Arable land was stretched to, and perhaps beyond, its limits due to the growing population and campaigns of the Imperial army. Its frontiers, covered always by field armies, were weakening due to the increasing number of Barbarian tribes migrating from their homelands.

One of the larger groups of barbarians was the Goths, who lived mostly north of the Danube frontier around the Black sea. The Goths were one of the only groups to solidly defeat the Imperial army; in 378, at Adrianople, Valens, Emperor of the eastern Empire, was killed in battle along with hundreds of soldiers. This group greatly affected Roman history from here on out, particularly in the western part of the empire, the older portion. The east was too young and vital to be infiltrated by barbarians, and so they turned west, looking for better land and refuge from the Hunnic peoples that are theorized to have started the barbarian migrations. The Goths would later sack Rome (Visigoths, under Alaric in 410); start kingdoms in the Aquitaine, and settle all over western-Europe, shaping the events to come after the fall of the empire. Such an important group unfortunately left little historical resources on its own accord. Much of what is known of the people is derived from cemetery and village excavations, Roman historians like Jordanes, Tacitus, and Cassiodorus, and commentary and writings from people like Ammianus Marcellinus. However, from these sources historians have been able to understand Gothic society and politics, Gothic religion, and their direct involvement with late antiquity events that ended the Western Empire.

One of the questions historians are constantly confronted with, and trying to answer, is where the Goths originally came from. Peter J. Heather quotes a passage from Jordanes’ Getica in his book The Goths (Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Oxford, 1998), which is worth repeating here to try to answer where the Goths originated:

[Chapter 25] Now from this island of Scandza, as from a hive of races or a womb of nations, the Goths are said to have come forth long ago under their king, Berig by name. As soon as they disembarked from their ships and set foot on the land, they straightway gave their name to the place. And even today it is said to be called Gothiscandza. [26] Soon they moved from here to the abodes of the Ulmerugi, who then dwelt on the shores of the Ocean, where they pitched camp, joined battle with them and drove them from their homes…[27] In search of suitable homes and pleasant places they came to the land of Scythia, called Oium in that tongue (The Goths, 12).

Scandza, Heather goes on to clarify is Scandinavia (12). The migration was due to over-population, which eventually brought them to the Black Sea (Scythia). This migration was composed of men, women and children, known for a fact due to cemetery finds that lead in lines to certain areas. These migrations were led by military kings, who replaced tribal kings. Tribal kings were chosen for their noble blood. In the last years before Christ, tribal kings carried out the sacral duties of a high priest. They ruled alongside martial kings, who were chosen for their valor and their heroism. They did not have to have noble blood; they merely had to be responsible for some sort of victory. Herwig Wolfram equates these martial kings to the mythological hero in his book The Roman Empire and its German Peoples (tr. Thomas Dunlap, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1997), like Beowulf or Thor or King Arthur. These men were often outsiders who had to work under tribal kings in times of battle, and win the respect of the people by their courage. The early martial kings get intertwined in Scandinavian sagas and Anglo-Saxon mythology. This is why noblemen often trace their lineage back to Gods, whose powers they embodied, and who they ultimately consecrated themselves to (pp. 20-22, Wolfram).

However, both Heather and Wolfram are in agreement that martial kings, which by the fourth century had superseded tribal kings, by no means had complete power: “Controlling [the] men was far from easy…sources portray…Gothic leaders ‘urging’ and ‘persuading’ their followers rather than just issuing orders,” (Heather, p.57). This is not to say that social stratification hadn’t occurred by the fourth century. The deep respect for heroism and leadership in times of conflict had created a warrior aristocracy, made up of “…a freemen class among who there were already substantial differentials in wealth” (Heather, p.57). Often this class led only small bands of people, leading them around to arable land to procure food. However, one prominent example of traditional migration, that is, migration of large groups of people, is the continuous finding of women’s belongings at excavated cemeteries. Consistently, there was found brooches, necklaces, belts and fibulae, all of the same style, which Heather contributes to the Wielbark culture of the Goths (Heather, p.48). These larger migrations were “often preceded by the activities of ‘scouts’: small groups largely of young men checking on the possibilities of new areas” (Heather, p.49). These migrations left behind archeological finds in rather thin routes from old habitats to new, refuting the idea that the Goths came in waves of warbands. By the fourth century, these “many smaller units had given way to fewer larger ones,” (Heather, p.64) – across the frontiers.

The Rhine frontier’s Alamanni of the fourth century consistently raised up men as kings whenever Romans were busy fighting elsewhere, prompting Roman policy be altered specifically to contain them. On the Danube frontier, there were still small units, though the Goths had gained control of much more land than in the previous century. The Tervingi, unlike the Alamanni, were more peaceful with the Romans, due to Valens’ treaty alterations in 368. Though they lost their tributes, and had to deal with a more tightly regulated border, they were free from “much of the substance of Roman hegemony, particularly the requirement that they had to provide military contingents” (Heather, p.62). This resulted in certain practices that will be covered later. Fourth century Gothic society, as Heather states, “Was entirely typical of the contemporary Germanic world in having a well-entrenched elite” (Heather, p.65). Some of these noblemen are named in texts like The Passion of St. Saba, a source Heather cites because of its information on the martyrdom of Saba, a Gothic Christian. Atharid, his father Rothesteos, and Winguric were all men who played a part in the Christian persecutions of 368-372. Other men are named in Ammianus’ account of the battle of Adrianople- Alatheus, Saphrax and Farnobius (Ammianus Marcellnus Res Gestae, tr. J.C. Rolfe, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, 1939). “The Gothic term for such men was perhaps reiks…it had the general meaning of ‘leader of men’ or ‘distinguished’ (Heather, p.65). Evidence for these reiks is again found in burial sites, where more goods are buried with some than others (Heather, p.65). These reiks were never guaranteed this position of nobility, nor were their kin. If a man was lucky, he would earn this distinction in his life, and the title was not passed to his sons. He was subject to the men he tried to have follow his cause, and if he lost their support, he lost the title. It’s not until the seventh century that laws and codes are actually written down that separate the classes into three groups- “free, freed or half free and slaves” (Heather, p.75). It can be assumed that in the fourth century, these groups informally existed, and in the centuries to come, perhaps the tendency to Romanize their societies led them to establish formal classes.

As was noted before, the Gothic nobility had the say in what religion was practiced. Obviously the barbarians were pagan long after the Romans had become Christian. One of the Roman policies of containment was to send missionaries into frontier areas and try to convert the peoples, which would turn them against each other. Christianity first came across the Danube after the large-scale raids Goths acted out in 257 in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor, the dominantly Christian areas of the Empire (Wolfram, p. 75). Goths took many of the people as booty from these lands, and from these people came one of the most famous Goths, Ulfilas (Wolfram, p.76). Ulfilas was born in 310 (Wolfram, p.76), and in 341 made bishop of the land he was from. He translated the bible some time between 348 and 350. According to Wolfram, “Ulfilas…used a Gothic alphabet of [his] own creation, which incorporated elements from Latin anf Runic writing into a base of Greek letters” (Wolfram, p.77). However, this was done in the tradition of Arianism, the belief that the Son is not of the same divinity as the Father. The reason for this was Ulfilas’s affiliation with Constantius II, who rejected the Nicene Creed. Because this was “mainstream imperial Christianity for its day” (Heather, p.61) many of the noblemen tried to thwart its presence in the Gothic lands as a means to resist Romanization. In 369, when the new treaty was created between the Tervingi and the Emperor Valens, the noblemen saw the chance to get rid of Christianity by staging persecutions until 372. One of the main reasons nobles ever even voluntarily converted to Christianity, which was still Arian above the Danube, was to get admission to the Empire in 376, so they could trade and live on the lands (Heather, p. 61). Christianity was accepted begrudgingly, and was slow in winning over the people. Christianity was also used by the Goths to settle blood feuds and gain power, to become reiks. In the persecutions of 368-c.372, Athanaric, one of the nobles granted leadership to fight against Valens, used the persecution to keep himself in power. Fritigern, another reiks, “took the side of the Arian-Christians – in a pro Valens sense – and took up arms against [Athanaric] (Wolfram, p.79).

By the fifth century, the Gothic peoples were more or less solidly Arian-Christian, and they used this as a means of identity. This didn’t start until kingdoms were actually being set up in the Empire. Conversion started at the top class and worked its way down. After Arianism went out of vogue with the imperial court, the Goths saw Arianism as something to separate themselves from the Romans. The desire to be different from the Romans came from the way Romans treated and viewed Germanic peoples. Writers like Orosius tore apart Roman-German people of rank like Stilicho (Oliver Nicholson, Lecture), characterizing him as a “ratty German” who tried to strike deals with the Vandals, when in reality Stilicho was trying to protect Honorius’s part of the empire. When the Vandals made it to Northern Africa, the Roman peoples made sure to let the invaders know they were not welcome, mainly due to the difference in religious dogma. This bible went on to be used by The Goths, the Gepids, the Vandals, the Rugians, Sciri, Heruli, and the Alans (Wolfram, p.77). Consequently, all of these peoples were Arians well into the years after the fall of the Western Empire. The only Barbarian tribes that invaded the empire who weren’t Arians were the Franks, who were Catholic-Christian (they converted in 492 under Clovis), who invaded Gaul, and the Jutes, pagans who along with Angles and Saxons invaded England (Nicholson, Lectures).

Many different things were weakening the empire- religion, agriculture, invasions, and power struggles- and the Goths were involved in almost all of these areas. The Goths put an end to Arianism in the Empire in 378, when at Adrianople the Eastern Emperor Valens, a pro-Arian like Constantius II before him, a force of Goths, “…the Therungi under the command of King Fritigern, and the Greuthungi led by Alatheus and Saphrax” (Ammianus, 31.12.18) ambushed Valens and his troops:

[31.18.4.] Here one might see a barbarian filled with loft courage, his cheeks contracted in a hiss, hamstrung or with right hand severed, or pierced through the side…and by the fall of the combatants on both sides the plains were covered with the bodies of the slain strewn over the ground, while the groans of the dying and of those who had suffered deep wounds caused immense fear when they were heard. (Ammianus)

In the course of action Valens was killed by an arrow, and his body was never found. As a result of this battle, Theodosius, Valens’ successor, was rather conciliatory with the Goths. They were now very near to Constantinople, and so Theodosius let a large body of Visigoths settle in the Balkans and retain their arms and tribal structures. This gave the Goths a refuge from the Huns who had pushed them from their former land above the Danube frontier, and it also gave them a home base to turn west and claim more land. Theodosius had to pacify the Visigoths because of the Persian and Roman dispute over Armenia, which needed his attention. With this attention taken away from the Visigoths, they were free to move across Europe. After Theodosius’ death in 395, his two sons Arcadius and Honorius succeeded him, Honorius taking the West, Arcadius the East. Both men were young, under the thumbs of their advisors, and so the emperor traveling throughout the empire ceased with these two, dividing the Empire, leaving the west at the mercy of the barbarians. Fifteen years after Theodosius dies, Rome is sacked by Alaric, who was once in the service of Rome against Constantine III in Gaul, but after Stilicho was killed, Alaric was free to rouse his people and take Rome. He attacked it twice, once in c.407, but ceased the siege to negotiate with Honorius in Ravenna. When Honorius stalled, Alaric took the city again and demanded annual payment, and when that didn’t happen, Alaric seized the port of Rome, cutting off the grain supply from North Africa. On August 24th, 410, he captured Rome, where he and his warband pillaged for three days before trying to get to North Africa, but when his fleet got wrecked, he stayed, and died, in Southern Italy. Rome had never been captured in all of its history. Now, not only had the Goths killed an emperor, they had taken the Central City of the Empire of which every citizen considered their home. Alaric helped to stress and undermine the cohesiveness of the two halves of the empire. Little to no help was sent from the East to the West in the fifteen years between Theodosius’ death and the sack of Rome. This is what made the Empire become two halves. Between Honorius’ death in 423 and the last Western Emperor, Romulus Augustulus’ end in Ravenna, the Barbarians had moved into Gaul, Italy, and Northern Africa. (Nicholson).

Most of the Gothic peoples had been trying to get to Northern Africa because of its grain. The Vandals were able to get ships and sail to North Africa, about 80,000 strong, and headed to Morocco, skipping the fertile land of Tunisia. By the late 420’s, the Vandals had gotten to Hippo, and as St. Augustine lay dying, the Arian-Vandals besieged the city. In 439 the Vandals took Carthage, where they set up a kingdom that lasted for a century. The king of the Vandals at the time was Giseric, who ruled until 477. The Vandals made sure to destroy all the walls of the North African cities as they passed. Giseric was also able to take control of the Western Mediterranean sea lane when he captured Sardinia and Corsica, and sacked Rome again. Giseric stole the Menora Titus had stolen from Jerusalem, and brought it to Carthage. This was what earned the Vandals the reputation of being despicable and in this time was the word “vandalism” created, due to Gothic tribes laying ruin to the Western world (Nicholson, 4/18). The Goths had effectively ruined the illusion that the old Roman way of life was still living, and separated the two halves of the Empire, through battles, religion, and power struggles.

As important as the Goths were to shaping the history of late antiquity, and beginning the middle ages, there is still much more to be learned of them. Not made up of a single ethnic disposition, they integrated with people all over Europe, changing bloodlines forever. They lived the stuff of legends, showing insane bravery on the battlefield, and living for war. But the voices of the Goths themselves are yet to be heard. What we know is shaped by observations made about them by Romans, and later Germanic-Romans of the 6th and 7th centuries. Their effect cannot be ignored. Without the Goths, Catholicism would not be what it is today. It is because of their severe disruption of Roman bureaucracy that Bishops were able to rise as central figures of power in cities, which would prove very important in the middle ages (Nicholson). The majority of Americans today contain some of that same blood in their veins that coursed through the bodies of barbarians long ago. These are our people. They have just as much influence on the modern world as the Romans from all the eras of the Empire. The Goths were monumental forces in shaping the societies and religion of the world that would come after the Empire, through their actions in the 4th and 5th century.

Works Cited

1. Heather, Peter J. The Goths. Oxford: Blackwell Ltd, 1998. (pp.11-12, 48-49, 57, 61- 62, 64-65, 75).
2. Marcellinus, Ammianus. Res Gestae. Trans. J.C. Rolfe. Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, 1939. (XXXI., 12, 18; XXXI., 12, 18, 4)
3. Nicholson, Oliver P. Lecture. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. 2005.
4. Wallace-Hadrill, J.M.. The Barbarian West: The Early Middle Ages A.D.400-1000. New York: Harper & Row, 1962. p. 9 .
5. Wolfram, Herwig. The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples. Trans. Thomas Dunlap. Berkeley: University of California P, 1997. pp.20-22, 75-77, 79

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Although Coleridge and Wordsworth did not meet until the year 1797, they were familiar with one another’s work prior to that date. As early as 1793 Coleridge had read the poetry of Wordsworth, and he was specifically drawn to the political elements of his poem Descriptive Sketches. Their first meeting occurred in 1795 atBristol during a political debate. Not much is documented about Wordsworth’s first impressions of Coleridge, but upon meeting him in 1795 he’s recorded as mentioning, “I wished indeed to see more [of Coleridge]- his talent appears to me very great” (Newlyn, 5). Their friendship truly began to flourish when Coleridge visited Wordsworth in March of 1797 at Racedown, and after that visit the two had a much closer relationship and communicated with one another regularly.

Despite any difference, the two poets were compatible because they were both “preoccupied with imagination, and both [used] verbal reference in new ways”(Newlyn, 31). In 1798 the publication of their joint effort, Lyrical Ballads, signified the height of their relationship. This came at a time when they were together in Alfoxden, where they had enjoyed the simple pleasures of spending time together, discussing ideas, and devising schemes for publications. “Never again would the two poets have the sort of compatibility which allowed for major differences of opinion, without creating unease”(Newlyn, 34).

Following this time period, their friendship began to slowly deteriorate; beginning with criticisms of each other’s poetry, then growing into conflicting views on creativity and intellect, and finally culminating in a “radical difference” of “theoretical opinions” concerning poetry (Newlyn, 87). However, their friendship could have been spared, had Coleridge not been misinformed by Basil Montagu that Wordsworth referred to him as a “burden” and a “rotten drunkard”(Romanticism, 448). That was the last straw, and had deeply upset Coleridge, who was by this point addicted to liquid opium and very sensitive about the topic. Thus, after 1810 their friendship would never be the same, and although Wordsworth and Coleridge had once been compatible, and are often paired together as Romantic poets, it was ultimately their distinguishable differences that led to their falling out.

Coleridge’s different perception of poetry is what sets him aside from Wordsworth. In fact, Coleridge even reflected on the difference between his contributions and those of Wordsworth in Lyrical Ballads. He stated, “my endeavors would be directed to persons and characters supernatural – Mr. Wordsworth, on the other hand, was…to give charm of novelty to things of everyday”(Biographia, ch. xiv). Although Coleridge’s retrospective interpretation of this work could be viewed as an overly simplistic division of labor, it nonetheless proves that Coleridge viewed his poetic style as different than that of Wordsworth. Moreover, Coleridge’s retrospective interpretation insinuated that he dealt with complex subject matter (supernatural), while Wordsworth gave the ordinary a revitalizing freshness. Even though they worked together successfully on the publication Lyrical Ballads, Coleridge and Wordsworth clearly had contrasting opinions about “what constituted well written poetry.”

Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner uses very deliberate phrases in order to describe images. The descriptions portray a bleak atmosphere with vivid images of the “rotting deck” where “dead men lay”(Romanticism, 530). His lines directly address the despair of the situation with very concise language, leaving little to the imagination. The essence of the poem is summed up in the lines, “The many men so beautiful/ And they all dead did lie! / And a thousand slimy things/ Lived on – and so did I (Romanticism, 534).” The detail throughout the poem is painstakingly precise, yet still as effective as the simplistic approach of other prominent Romantic writers. The succinct descriptions allow for few interpretations, but as Coleridge is quoted as saying, “…the language of real life should be refined to give poetry its intenseness (Newlyn, 88).” Somber and lonely feelings are expressed through the intenseness, and the exact diction of Coleridge is what makes it possible for this to be conveyed.

Even Wordsworth recognized that Coleridge’s poetic diction in this poem differed from that of his own. In Note to ‘Ancient Mariner’ he criticized some of Coleridge’s stylistic approaches. This criticism proves that Wordsworth and Coleridge were not completely compatible, and it points out how Coleridge developed his own independent poetic diction, regardless of whether or not Wordsworth approved. In Wordsworth’s opinion, “The poem of my friend has indeed great defects,” and he goes on to say, “the principle person has no character…[the mariner] does not act, but is continually acted upon…the events have no necessary connection” (Romanticism, 345). More importantly, he stressed, “the imagery is somewhat too laboriously accumulated,”(Romanticism, 345) meaning that he believed the concise, meticulous descriptions were a flaw. Wordsworth went on to complement the passion in the poem, but his prior criticism made it clear that he would have taken a different approach to writing this poem.

The poem Written in Early Spring exemplifies Wordsworth’s poetic style, which often involved ordinary language to create a simple poetic diction. When he describes components of nature, Wordsworth uses personification and thus avoids imagery that he would consider “too laboriously accumulated.” Instead of describing the images with extensively precise detail, as Coleridge had done in Ancient Mariner, Wordsworth uses a common literary device to portray the images. He refers to birds that “hopped and played” and twigs that “catch the breezy air,” in order to depict nature. This draws on the imagination of the reader to fill in the rest of the image, whereas Coleridge in Ancient Mariner provides much of the detail by invoking his own imagination as a tool.

In the views of Coleridge, it is imagination that is vital to poetry, and imagination is also central to his poetic style. He believed that high quality poetry is the result of imagination being involved in the process. The imagination is broken into two sectors, according to Coleridge, the primary imagination and the secondary imagination. In the workBiographia Literaria he commented on his theory of the imagination: “The primary imagination I hold to be the living power and prime agent of all human perception…the secondary I consider as an echo of the former…identical with the primary in the kind of its agency, differing only in degree, and in the mode of its operation.” The primary imagination is spontaneous, while the secondary imagination, aware of the conscious act of the imagination, is thus hindered and imperfect in expression (Barfield, 28). In particular, it was the “chemically altered imagination” upon which the addicted Coleridge grew to rely. One of Coleridge’s most notorious poems, Kubla Khan, was a manifestation of a drug-induced vision.

The liquid opium, known laudanum, was a double edge sword for Coleridge; it was the source of his tragic addiction and the potion that enthused his imagination. This was because the drug increases blood flow to certain parts of the brain, inducing a creative nature and often causing hallucinations. This is an explanation as to why Coleridge concentrated on the power of the imagination. The poem Kubla Khan was inspired by opium use, and this is evident because Coleridge devised a completely original setting that had an undertone of darkness. The setting was described with very innovative images, in lines such as, “A damsel with a dulcimer/ In a vision [he] once saw” (Holmes, 17). The event is described in the context of a vision, not a dream or a thought, and this implies that the opium caused the “vision.” Moreover, the poem refers to an evil Mongol ruler, Kubla Khan, who does not represent peace or joy. That creates an under tone of darkness, and with opium the visions may have been glorious but the reality of the addiction was very “dark.”

On the other hand, Wordsworth had been known to dabble with opium but he did not have the same type of dependence, nor was his opium use overly evident in his poetry. Furthermore, the primary and secondary imagination is a concept that was unique to Coleridge, and although Wordsworth incorporated imagination into his poetry, he primarily called upon other sources of inspiration.

Wordsworth draws from nature in association with “spontaneous overflow[s] of powerful feelings” and “spots of time.” This is what he judges to be essential in the creation of poetry. The “spots of time” are moments from the past that are forever present in the mind, therefore they can constantly be reflected upon. The autobiographical poem, The Prelude, is a prime example of how Wordsworth reflects on “spots of time,” such as when he recalled the stormy weather that coincided with the death of his father. In addition, he allows nature to influence the mood of his poetry in works such asTintern Abbey. For example, Wordsworth wrote about “waters, rolling from their mountain springs,” and “the quiet of the sky,” which gave him feelings of “unremembered pleasure”(Romanticism, 265). Similar to Wordsworth’s criticism ofAncient Mariner, Coleridge criticized the manner in which Wordsworth derived inspiration from nature.

Coleridge asserts that “a poet ‘s heart and intellect” should be “combined with appearances in Nature – not held in…loose mixture in the shape of formal similes” (Newlyn, 91). This quote comes from his criticism of Bowles, but can also be applied to Wordsworth because his experiences with nature are based on mood, such as in the aforementioned Tintern Abbey. Passion, to Coleridge, was much more important than language that was “polished and artificial” (Newlyn, 89).

Coleridge criticized Wordsworth’s occasional exploitations of nature, and Wordsworth showed disdain for Coleridge’s “laboriously” concise diction in Ancient Mariner. However, apart from differences in their poetic diction and the ways in which they derived poetic inspiration, the two poets also had different outlooks on religion.

Especially in his later years, Coleridge concerned himself a great deal with God, religion and faith. His “ill health had led him to read the New Testament in a new light,” and he then began to look for “proof of God in the natural world” (Holmes, 71). He believed that men habitually needed “to look into their own souls instead of always looking out, both of themselves and their nature” (Holmes, 72). Coleridge not only examined the Bible, but he also studied the Trinitarian view of Christianity along with the works of St. Theresa. On the contrary, Wordsworth was an Anglican, as well as a pantheist. Although he did focus on God through nature as a pantheist, Wordsworth differed from Coleridge in that he did emphasize religious symbolism.

The poem Spots in the Sun is an example of how Coleridge incorporated God into his poetry. The poem is filled with constant religious references, and begins “My father confessor is strict and holy” (Romanticism, 511). Coleridge goes on to say, “Good father, I would fain not do thee wrong” (Romanticism, 511). The stress Coleridge placed on religion and God is ironic because this poem intended to address the strain on his relationship with Wordsworth. This poem addressed God and referenced religious anecdotes (i.e. “Mi fili peccare noli” or “Sin not, my son” Romanticism, 511), and overall the poem is referred to the strain in his relationship with Wordsworth; yet Coleridge incorporates religious symbolism that essentially contrasted the ideals of Wordsworth. One would imagine that if Coleridge were addressing the problematic relationship he would use language that is partial to Wordsworth, and refrain from involving ideology different from that of Wordsworth. On a very deep level, this may be an attempt by Coleridge to use juxtaposed concepts to convey his point. However, it is important to note that Coleridge integrated God into this poem. It displayed that even though he was concerned about his relations with Wordsworth, a very worthwhile topic, he felt that he could best address the situation by incorporating religious references.

When Wordsworth addressed the deteriorating relationship between himself and Coleridge in A Complaint, he wrote three stanzas without mentioning a word about God or religion. He wrote, “What happy moments did I count,” and wonders “what have I, shall I dare to dwell”(Romanticism, 407). Wordsworth refrained from bringing God into the issue, but instead used a literary device to convey his sentiment. He metaphorically compared their relationship to something very simple, which was a well that he hoped would “never dry” (Romanticism, 511).

Wordsworth comments on the situation from a simple standpoint and does not involve God or a higher being; however, Coleridge makes the situation more intricate by involving God. On the surface, this is an example of Coleridge complicating things that Wordsworth deemed simple. In addition, this could be viewed fundamentally as Wordsworth’s creative ability to abstain from involving God and Coleridge’s reluctance to overlook the role of God. However, to truly understand why Coleridge involved God in his poem and why Wordsworth did not, one must understand how they each individually interpreted symbolism.

When Wordsworth rewrote Destiny of Nations according to his own terms, he included the lines, “Even in their fixed and steady lineaments/ He traced an ebbing and flowing mind, / Expression ever varying”(Newlyn, 44). Had Coleridge written this verse the “ebbing and flowing mind” would be interpreted as that of God, because he constantly searched for proof of God’s existence outside of himself. Nonetheless, the verse was written by Wordsworth, in his linguistic ambiguity suggested that the “ebbing and flowing mind” was in fact his own. In contrast, he is looked inside himself but not inside his soul, while Coleridge asserted that man must look inside himself and it is there he will find inspiration in God.

Whether their differences stemmed from religion, means of inspiration, or simply poetic diction, it is evident that these two poets were uniquely individual. Moreover, although Samuel Coleridge is often paired with William Wordsworth, upon further examination one can plainly see that the two poets are undoubtedly different. The similarities between them often overshadow their individual achievements, ideas, and styles. Due to the fact that Samuel Coleridge sought out the acquaintance of William Wordsworth and had his appreciation for Wordsworth’s poetry well documented, Coleridge is considered the lesser of the two poets. Additionally, before the men collaborated on Lyrical Ballads, Coleridge was temporarily viewed as Wordsworth’s understudy. Combined with the fact that his opium addiction crippled his poetic potential, these elements portray Coleridge as less accomplished poet than Wordsworth. Regardless of popular opinion, Samuel Taylor Coleridge possessed his own unique poetic diction, sought non-traditional methods of poetic inspiration, conveyed original theories about the imagination, and distinctly incorporated his religious philosophies into his poetry. It is for these reasons that Samuel Taylor Coleridge remains a pillar for the Romantic era of poetry.

Annotated Bibliography

1. Newlyn, Lucy. Coleridge and Wordsworth; Language of Allusion.

Clarendon Press;New York:OxfordUniversityPress, 1986.

This source focuses on the relationship between Coleridge and Wordsworth, both as friends and as collaborators. Newlyn mentions that the friendship eventually faded but the reason the two were so complementary was because they were very different. They were different in terms of their ideas about imagination and intellect, and perhaps they eventually had a falling out because they had “unrealistic expectations” of what their friendship could produce. This source is of particular interest to me because it focuses on the differences between the two poets, and that will help in contrasting Coleridge with Wordsworth. In addition, this source will allow me to examine the men as friends and co-workers, and that can help me to see if either of those two relationships affected the other. The shortcomings of this source would have to be the fact that some of the information is not supported very strongly. This seems to be because some points in the book are more of the author’s opinion; however, much of the book seems to have reliable arguments that are supported with examples from poetry or real life occurrences. It is also critical that I focus on how Coleridge’s differences are what gain him recognition in the absence of Wordsworth.

2. Magnunson, Paul.  Coleridge and Wordsworth; A Lyrical Dialogue.

Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress, 1988.

This source concentrates on the complexity of the lyrical dialogue between Coleridge and Wordsworth in their poetry. One must read between the lines in order to identify the dialogue between these two men in their poetry. The author contends that this dialogue arose due to the fact that Coleridge and Wordsworth recognized similar themes and styles in their writing. This source is of value to me because it we help me grasp a better idea of the poetic relationship that existed between the two. In addition, the dialogue is hard to interpret so this source will make it easier to understand. Unfortunately, this source is heavily frequented with information about the methodology of their writings, and it tends to lack information on the men’s ideological differences as peers. Nevertheless, this source still holds value because it will break down the dialogue between the two men in several of their well-known poems.

3. Byatt, A.S.  Unruly Times: Wordsworth and Coleridge in Their Time.

London: Hogarth Press, 1989.

The lives, letters, and criticisms of Coleridge and Wordsworth are covered in this particular source. The two poets are examined in accordance to their era and the events in politics, education and literature at the time. The most important information that this source contains is about the growth of the poet’s ideas.  This will aid me in breaking Coleridge away from Wordsworth, and discovering exactly where his ideas differ from those of Wordsworth. Moreover, the criticisms of the poets are much needed because they will spur new thoughts and perspectives for me when approaching this topic. Did people have the same criticism of both poets? If not, where did the criticism differ and why? These types of questions will make it easier for me to contrast the poets, and it will give me a good idea of Coleridge’s strengths and weaknesses. The book does cover background information about the period in which the men lived, and that is both good and bad. It is good because it will provide me with a grounds for examination, that is to say, I can see how both men reacting similarly/differently in response to certain events. It is bad because at times the background information can be too in depth and that is distracting.

4. Barfield, Owen. What Coleridge Thought. London:OxfordUniversity Press, 1972.

My final two sources focus more on Coleridge as an individual, and that is what my paper is basically aiming to cover. Aside from Wordsworth, Coleridge has his own independent ideas and works. However, he is still most often discussed in context with Wordsworth. This source provides exactly what the title suggests, and the ideas of Coleridge often seem to be very complex and in depth. I want to examine that in this source because it seems to be a strong characteristic of Coleridge’s poetry that differentiates him from Wordsworth. This source also discusses all of Coleridge’s poetry in great detail, and that provides a helpful interpretation and breakdown of the ideas behind the poetry. The one downfall to this source would be that it is the oldest of all my sources and some of the ideas might be out dated in comparison to my more updated sources. The basics are covered in this source and an older source may be able to actually provide perspectives that go overlooked today.

5. Holmes, Richard.  Coleridge: Darker Reflections. New York: Pantheon, 1999.

This is my most complete source on Samuel Coleridge, including both his life and works in a biographical format. The title accurately reflects the tone of this book, as it delves into Coleridge’s family life, poetry, and opium addiction. A full view of his life allows me to see why he may have thought differently than Wordsworth, and it also gives me better assessment of his character. Many of his poems are inspired by something he has seen or experienced, and this source provides information as to when, why, and how those inspirations occurred. This source however does not cover Coleridge’s early life, it only covers the last thirty years of his lifetime. Although that is not necessarily “complete” it is sufficient for my topic because that is the time period in which he grew apart from Wordsworth and their differences were magnified. When I see what makes him different from Wordsworth, it will allow me to see why Coleridge is unique as a Romantic poet. Also, many of the poems I intend to examine for my paper were written around this part of Coleridge’s life.

6.  Romanticism: An Anthology. Malden,MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1998.

This is the text that we used in class and it provided me with brief biographical information about Coleridge and Wordsworth. More importantly, this text supplied many of Coleridge and Wordsworth’s poetry, complete with footnotes.

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“Tricycle” magazine described the boom of LSD during the 1960s as blowing the generation gap wide open. They described it as “the old were appalled while the young were enthralled.” In his manuscript for Flashbacks Leary wrote, “Some students quit school and pilgrimage eastward to study yoga on the Ganges. Not necessarily a bad development from our point of view but understandably upsetting to parents who did not send their kids to Harvard to become Buddhas” (Fields 1).

LSD stands for Lysergic Acid Diethylamide. The synthetic hallucinogenic drug was discovered by accident in 1938 by Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman. Hoffman was so taken aback by the immediate and profound distortions caused by LSD that he penned his experience immediately after his “trip.”

“I was forced to stop my work in the laboratory… and to go home, as I was seized by a particular restlessness associated with the sensation of mild dizziness. On arriving home, I lay down and sank into a kind of drunkenness which was not unpleasant and which was characterized by extreme activity of imagination. As I lay in a dazed condition with my eyes closed (I experienced daylight as disagreeably bright) there surged upon me an uninterrupted stream of fantastic images of extraordinary plasticity and vividness and accompanied by an intense, kaleidoscope-like play of colours. This condition gradually passed off after about two hours.” (Nevid 328)

LSD affects the user by decreasing the affect of serotonin in the brain. Because serotonin normally acts as a neurotransmitter that inhibits neural activity, a decrease in serotonin causes brain activity to escalate. The resulting increase in brain activity produces major sensory distortions, including changes in color perception and hearing. Users often claim that LSD “expands consciousness and opens new worlds – as if they were looking into some reality beyond the usual reality” (Nevid 328). Leary hypothesized that LSD doesn’t actually alter reality in so much that it allows the user to see reality as it truly exists. This is not terribly different from the Yogacara philosophy branch of Buddhism that discusses how the mind is empty and reality as it is seen is actually an illusion. Leary’s idea that LSD enables users to see reality as it truly exists is similar to what Buddhists call “Thusness” or “Ultimate Reality.” The psychedelic experience is described as being beyond the users in that it cannot be put into language or mental constructs. Leary often opined that that while science had the benefit to develop a specific language used to communicate across the board from one scientist to another, no such set of language exists for the psychedelic experience (Leary 24).

As such, it is often difficult to explain what occurs during an LSD trip. Like Hoffman’s experience after accidentally discovering acid in his laboratory, users typically describe vivid colors and sounds coming in what some have described as “waves”.

The psychedelic experience draws many parallels between sensory deprivation, yoga exercises, disciplined meditation, and many religious or aesthetic ecstasies. Leary theorized that the actual drug does not produce the “transcendent experience”; LSD merely acts as the chemical key to opening the mind (Leary 11).

Leary himself had his first psychedelic experience after tripping acid in Mexico in 1960. His familiarity with Buddhist and Eastern studies began while attending West Point Military Academy in Massachusetts. There, he used his time in punitive isolation to study Eastern texts. Leary said his time at West Point was comparative to studying in a yoga monastery (Unknown Author 1).

As a psychologist and professor at Harvard University, Leary expanded his ideas of the useful nature of LSD. He gave acid to inmate volunteers and found the drug useful in the treatment of alcoholism and schizophrenia. His controversial work was decidedly unpopular with his colleagues and Harvard refused renewal of his contract with the Ivy League university. Leary continued his experiments with psychedelic drugs, including LSD and mescaline. He wrote several books on his studies including High Priest Psychedelic Prayers of the Tao Te Ching, Your Brain is God, and The Politics of Ecstasy

In 1962, Leary, along with Ralph Metzner and Richard Albert, adapted the Bardo Thodol of The Tibetan Book of the Dead to write The Psychedelic Experience The book, which has since been translated into seven languages and sixteen editions, was meant to show the correlation between LSD and The Tibetan Book of the Dead Because the original manual was meant to acquaint a dying person with the liberation of the Clear Light of Reality, Leary said it was easy to recast that theory with the death of the ego during a psychedelic trip. He wrote the manual with the intention “that acid, in conjunction with the manual’s guide, could be used to direct and control awareness in such a way to reach that level of understanding called liberation or enlightenment” (Leary 45). This is comparative to the way many practitioners of Buddhism use mediation in an attempt to reach Nirvana.

Leary actually guided his friend Aldous Huxley through the psychedelic experience

while Huxley was dying of cancer. Years before, Huxley had read parts of The Tibetan

Book of the Dead to his first wife as she was dying of cancer. He repeated the instructions into her ear even after she had stopped breathing, all the while saying, “Let go, let go. Go forward into the light. Let yourself be carried into the light’ (Fields 1).

Huxley had his own experiences with hallucinogenics while participating in experiments with mescaline in Los Angeles in May of 1953. During his experience, Huxley remembered a line from one of D.T. Suzuki’s essays, “What is the Dharma Body of the Buddha?” and said he found the answer: The hedge at the bottom of the hill. “What had previously seemed only a vague pregnant piece of nonsense was no clear as day. Of course, the Dharma Body of the Buddha was at the hedge at the bottom of the garden, he wrote in The Doors of Perception (Fields 1).

Still Huxley remained skeptical about the experience. “I am not so foolish to equate what happens under the influence of mescaline with the realization of the end and ultimate purpose of human life: Enlightenment” (Fields 1). Instead, Huxley chose to call it a “gratuitous grace.”

Leary, on the other hand, saw the psychedelic experience as a life-changing one. He advised readers that the only way to hold onto what they learn during a psychedelic session was to extend those principles to everyday life. This is Leary’s famous, “turn on, tune in and drop out” advocacy.

TURN ON -’The turned on person realizes that s/he is not an isolated, separate social

ego, but rather one transient energy process hooked up with the energy dance around hir” (Leary 86). To turn on, Leary said it was important to not let the psychedelic experience stop even after the LSD has worn off.

TUNE IN – ‘Tune in means to arrange your environment so that it reflects your state of

consciousness, to harness your internal energy to the flow around you” (Leary 86). To tune in, Leary recommends changing your dress and housing to reflect your newly “turned on” point of view.

DROP OUT – “Walk, talk, eat, drink like a joyous forest-dwelling god” (Leary 87).

Leary theorized that if everyone turned on, tuned in, and dropped out, there would be grass growing on Wall-Street in less than one year.

The main thrust of Leary’s argument in applying a book meant for the dying is the loss of the ego during a psychedelic experience. The ego is Leary’s term for self. Without the ego, the user has no sense of self. Leary hypothesized that to reach pure awareness, or enlightenment, the user has to remove themselves from the “game,” referring to the roles, rituals and rules defined by society.

The process begins by the user preparing themseif for an actual session by reading material on the psychedelic experience. Then comes the actual taking of the LSD. LSD is an orally ingested drug, usually blotted onto paper or sugar cubes. The drug begins to take affect 30 to 60 minutes after being ingested. The effects of the LSD depend largely on dosage, and as Leary emphasized, setting.

“Immediate set refers to expectations about the session itself. People naturally tend to impose personal and social perspectives on any new situation. For example, some ill-prepared subjects unconsciously impose a medical model on the experience. They look for symptoms, interpret each new sensation in terms of sickness/health, and, if anxiety develops, demand tranquilizers.” (Leary 58)

Some of the side-effects of ingesting LSD include the following: Nausea Trembling, shaking Clammy coldness-which the Tibetans call water-sinking-into-fire Feelings of body melting Body Pressure-which Tibetans call earth-sinking-into-water

Leary wrote that these physical reactions should be avoided as signs of illness, but rather “the consciousness moving around in the body and the onset of ego loss” (Leary Dudjom Rinpoche, a great yogi scholar, once said, “if you see something horrible, don’t cling to it. If you see something beautiful, don’t cling to it.” This idea of refusing to hold onto anything reinforces the Buddhist perspective of impermanence; That nothing is forever. This idea is reinforced in the original Tibetan Book of the Dead and the idea of “samsara”-the endless cycle of birth and rebirth.

Another researcher of Buddhism and LSD, Terence McKenna, said that the links even go so far as compassion and awareness. McKenna spent 25 years studying the ontological foundations of shamanism and spiritual transformation. In an April 1996 interview with “Tricycle” magazine, McKenna said the psychedelic society easily fit into the notion of Buddhist practices.

“Well, compassion is the central moral teaching of Buddhism and, hopefully, the central moral intuition of the psychedelic experience. So at the ethical level I think these things are mutually reinforcing and very good for each other. Compassion is what we lack. Buddhism preaches compassion. Psychedelics give people the power to overcome habitual behaviors. Compassion is a function of awareness. You cannot attain great awareness without attaining greater compassion, whether you’re attaining this awareness through Buddhist practice or psychedelic experience.” (Hunt-Badiner 1). The “habitual behaviors,” as McKenna described them, are what Leary refers to as the “game”- the system of roles and rules the ego goes through on a daily basis. It is perhaps because of the roles and rituals already so thoroughly reinforced by Leary’s time that his ideas were met with such intense scrutiny and dismay. He was often accused of advocating LSD “for kicks” and thought to be the pied piper of a whole generation hell bent on drug use.

“When I’m accused of promoting the use of LSD for kicks, I wonder what they mean by “kicks.” To me the kick means an ecstatic revelation… In any sane society, the word kick could be the ideal, the ecstasy, it means going beyond, getting out of your mind, confronting God. A confrontation with divinity, your own higher intelligence, is going to change you, and some people don’t want to change.” (Leary 96). Instead, Leary said the aim of taking LSD was to open up the user philosophically, increase intelligence, and increase sensitivity. The idea of being led to a higher state of consciousness has even simpler roots in Buddhist practice as evinced by a story Leary recounts of when he was in prison:

“When I was studying mammalian theology at Folsom prison in 1973, it was my custom, during the clear, blue-sky, desert-hot summer months, to walk barefoot in the prison yard. One day the leader of the Hell’s Angels, his name was James “Fu” Griffin, approached me.

“Hey man,” he said, “how come you walk barefoot in the prison yard? Don’t you know that’s dangerous?” We were the best of friends and his question was solicitous, not hostile. He wanted nothing but the best for me.

“Why is it dangerous?” I asked.

“Well you’re exposed. Like to germs and all. You know all these animals spit on the ground here.”

“Yeah, I know. But here’s how I look at it. When you walk barefoot, like undefended, you are very alert about where you put your feet. I’m more alive, like a wild animal, when I’m barefoot. A And, come to think of it, I believe it would be better if more prisoners here stopped spitting on the yard and joined me walking barefoot.”

“I see what you mean,” said James “Fu” Griffin.

He subsequently got a degree in anthropology from Berkeley and later became a Country-Western promoter in San Francisco.” (Leary 23)

Aside from the obvious Buddhist theme of walking barefoot and being “in tune” with your surroundings, another subtler connection can be found between the previous mentions of the links between the psychedelic experience and Buddhism in terms of awareness and compassion. “If we all stop spitting, we can all use it,” Leary said. What Leary is perhaps really saying is that if everyone had the benefit of seeing reality through the lens of the psychedelic experience, maybe everyone would change the way they live. “If everyone in Manhattan were to “turn on” and “tune in,” grass would grow on First Avenue and tieless, shoeless divinities would dance or roller-skate down the carless streets. Ecological consciousness would emerge within 25 years. Fish would swim in a clear-blue Hudson” (Leary 87).

Unfortunately, society at large reduced Leary’s ideas to a hipster fantasy and never truly took the psychologist seriously. John Perry Barlow, co-founder of the Electric Frontier Foundation, reasoned that “the public terror of LSD is based more on media-propagated superstition than familiarity with its effects on the real world” and that even “regular” citizens who have dropped acid are quick to dismiss the benefits of LSD. LSD promotes manipulating reality, rather than accepting it, Barlow said. “LSD is not illegal because it endangers your sanity. LSD is illegal because it endangers control” (Barlow 1). Even the 25 million Americans who have taken LSD would be somewhat hesitant to admit even taking the drug, let alone contributing any sort of positive change to it.

It is because of this existing hostile environment that the use of LSD continues to be done in secret. Many continue to use acid in secret as a sacrament, much like the earliest Tantric circles in India who transformed such taboo substances such as meat and wine into sacraments (Fields 4). Leary even tried to formalize a religion around the use of LSD for legal purposes, even though he shunned the idea of organized religion all together. He attempted to found the “League for Spiritual Discovery” as a means to legalize the use of LSD in the context of religious purposes. After all, Catholic priests were still afforded the right to use wine as a sacrament during prohibition. The idea never came full-circle.

As such, practitioners who use LSD in the context of furthering spiritual development must do so in secret. They say the benefits of such practices far outweigh any stigma of being seen as a “acid drop-out.”

Said one Buddhist practitioner, Myton J. Stolaroff, “In learning to hold my mind empty, I became aware that other levels of reality would more readily manifest. It was only in absolute stillness that many subtle but extremely valuable nuances of reality appeared. I found this effect to be greatly amplified while under the psychedelic substance. This, in turn, intensified my daily practice” (Fields 4).

It is highly worth mentioning, as Leary often emphasized, that the idea of promoting LSD as a means of reaching spiritual awareness, must be done with utmost care and consideration. All throughout The Psychedelic Experience as well as his other texts, Leary continually reinforced the idea of having a guide and understanding the context of what you were doing.

It could be argued that the children who dropped LSD in the 1960s contributed to a decade of confusion and conflict. It could also be argued that those same children grew up and went on to found such things as the internet and continually build society to the way it is today.

This was not just doing drugs just to do drugs. This was a group of scholars, researchers, and psychologists who thought they found a way to change the world, and if not the world, than at least it’s consciousness.

Works Cited

Barlow, John Perry. “Liberty and LSD.” Tricycle Magazine April. 1996.

Hunt-Badiner, Allan. “Sacred Antidotes, an Interview with Terence McKenna.” Tricycle

Magazine April. 1996.

Fields, Rick. “A High History of Buddhism.” Tricycle Magazine April. 1996. Leary, Timothy. The Politics of Ecstasy Berkeley, California: Ronin Publishing, 1980.

Leary, Timothy. Your Brain is God Berkeley, California: Ronin Publishing, 1988.

Leary, Timothy, Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert. The Psychedelic Experience A

Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead New York, New York: Kensington Publishing, 1964.

Nevid, Jeffrey, Spencer Rathus, and Beverly Greene. Abnormal Psychology in a

Changing World New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 2000.

Unknown Author, Internet Source. “Timothy Leary, Biography, Beatland.”

http://www.spress.de/beat-generation/

Related

• The “Pure Consciousness Experience”

Therefore, whether or not humans want to admit this commonality with animals and insects, every species is impacted by pheromones. Pheromones affect all the processes vital to the continuation of life on this planet: from helping each species to select its mate, to ensuring females ovulate at the opportune time for procreation, to beginning the birthing process and making certain mothers need to nurse their young as much as the young need to be nursed. If it weren’t for pheromones, human beings may or may not choose a compatible mate and other species may not mate at all. Also, if it were not for pheromones, some species may not feel the need to mate during ovulation, making reproduction more of a game of chance. And, if pheromones didn’t play a part of mother-infant relationships, females of any species other than human beings may not nurse or care for their offspring since there would be no chemical signaler telling them they need to do these things. Pheromones are a modulator of life from birth to death and any change in their interaction with all species would heavily influence mating and reproduction.

References

Beier, K. , Ginez, I. , & Schaller, H. (2004, December 18). Localization of steroidhormone receptors in the apocrine sweat glands of the human axilla.

Histochem Cell Biology, 123, 61-65.

Boschat, C. , Pélofi, C. , Randin, O. , Rappolo, D. , Broillet, M.C. , & Rodriguez, I. , (2005 December). Pheromone detection mediated by a V1r vomeronasal receptor. Nature Neuroscience, 5, 1261-1262.

Buck, L. B. , (2004, November). Olfactory receptors and odor coding in mammals. Nutrition Reviews,62, S184-S188.

Cornwell R. E. , Boothroyd, L. , Burt, D. M. , Feinberg, D. R. , Jones, B. C. , &Little, A.C. , et al. (2004, February 13). Concordant preferences for opposite-sex signals? Human pheromones and facial characteristics. The Royal Society, 635-640.

Del Punta, K. , Leinders-Zufall, T. , Rodriguez, I. , Jukam, D. , Wysocki, C. J. , & Ogawa,S. , et al. (2002, September 5). Deficient pheromone responses in mice lacking a cluster of vomeronasal receptor genes. Nature, 419, 70-75.

Dulac, C. & Torello, T. (2003, July). Molecular detection of pheromone signals in mammals: From genes to behaviour. Nature Reviews, 4, 551-562.

Grammer, K. , Fink, B. , & Neave, N. (2004, August 19). Human pheromones and sexual attraction. European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 135-142.

Hughes, H. C. (1999). Sensory exotica., Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.

Johnson, R. L. (1989). The secret language: Pheromones in the animal world. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company.

Keverne, E.B. (2004). Importance of olfactory and vomeronasal systems for male sexual function. Physiology & Behavior, 83, 177-187.

Kien, T. & Storm, D. R. (2004, November). Detection of odorants through the main olfactory epithelium and the vomeronasal organ of mice. Nutrition Reviews, Nov. 2004 Supplement, v.62, n.11. S189-S192.

Kimball, John. (2005, November 1). Pheromones. Retrieved November 21, 2005,from http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages

Kodis, M. (1998). Love scents: How your natural pheromones influence your relationships, your mood, and who you love. New York: Penguin Group.

Kohl, J. V. & Francoeur, R.T. (1995). The scent of eros: Mysteries of odor in human sexuality. New York: Continuum Publishing Company.

Pankewich, D. E. , Baum, M. J. , & Cherry, J. A. (2004, October 20). Olfactory sex discrimination persists, whereas the preference for urinary odorants form estrous females disappears in male mice after vomeronasal organ removal. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 9451-9457.

Savic, I. , Berglund, H. , & Lindstrum, P. (2005, May 17). Brain response to putative pheromones in homosexual men. PNAS, 102, 7356-7361.

Savic-Berglund, I. (2004, November). Imaging of Olfaction and Gustation. Nutrition Reviews, 62, S205-S207.

Seppa, N. (2005, November 1). Nailing down pheromones in humans. Science News Online. Retrieved November 19, 2005, from http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/3_14_98/fob1.htm

Stowers, L. , Holy, T.E. , Meister, M. , Dulac, C. , & Koentges, G. (2002, February 25). Loss of sex discrimination and male-male aggression in mice deficient for TRP2. Science, 295, 1493-1500.

Von Campenhausen, H. & Mori, K. (2000, January). Convergence of segregated pheromonal pathways from the accessory olfactory bulb to the cortex in the mouse. European Journal of Neuroscience, 12, 33-46.

Wedekind, C. & Furi, S. (1997). Body odour preferences in men and women: Do they aim for specific MHC combinations or simply heterozygosity? The Royal Society, 1471-1479.

Wysocki, C. & Preti, G. (2004). Facts, fallacies, fears and frustrations with human pheromones. The Anatomical Record, Part A 281A, 1201-1211.

1 – Introduction to Pheromones

2 – Opposite-Sex Attraction

3 – Same-Sex Attraction

4 – Mother-Infant Bonding

5 – Menstrual Cycle Modulator

6 – Conclusion & References

Related

• Introduction to Pheromones: The Science of Smell
• Opposite-Sex Attraction: The Science of Smell
• Menstrual Cycle Modulator: The Science of Smell
• Same-Sex Attraction: The Science of Smell
• Mother-Infant Bonding: The Science of Smell
• De-Sexing the Bonobo
• A Sinking Earth

A woman’s menstrual cycle can be altered by the pheromones transmitted by either males or females. This chemical signal can cause her cycle to become synchronized, shortened, or lengthened. The male pheromones which affect females are the primer pheromones. Many studies have been conducted on different mammals to explain the affects pheromones have on female mammal’s menstrual cycles.

What Studies Have Been Done to Prove This?

One study experimented on female boars in which male boar urine was rubbed on the female boar’s snout. This caused her to stand in the mating stance, just as if the male boar was standing near her. (Grammer, Fink, & Neave, 2004)

Research on rodents’ chemical communication systems is the most common in laboratories. Female mice are mammals that are easily influenced by male mice pheromones. (Johnson, 1989) Male mice pheromones can revolutionize female mice since the ovulation of female mice is regulated by the pheromones in male urine. In research, it has been shown that when there is no male present, the female’s estrous cycles are not in synchronization. On the other hand, when the male is present, the females become synchronized. Puberty can also be influenced by the presence of male urine. Female mice will begin their oestrous cycles early if introduced to male mice urine early. Mice can determine the dominant male by the signature odor in the present urine.

How Are Female Humans Influenced by Male Human Pheromones?

Human females are easily influenced by human male pheromones; a woman’s menstrual cycle can be regulated by a man’s pheromones from his perspiration. One example is the research conducted by Cutler. Cutler applied male perspiration to the upper lips of women. Through his research, he came to the conclusion that males can cause a woman’s menstrual cycle to become regular – occurring every 28 days. Cutler also concluded, “The male essence seemed to substitute for regular weekly sex” (Kodis, 1998, p.89). Whether or not a woman ovulates is a direct result of the presence of male pheromones. (Kodis, 1998) In her book, The secret language: Pheromones in the animal world, Rebecca Johnson (1989) states:

Women who are celibate do not ovulate during every menstrual cycle – in fact, they ovulate only about half the time. Women who have contact with men, however, ovulate 90% of the time, and their cycles become more regular. (p. 292)

This is further proof that females’ menstrual cycles are influenced by the pheromones of men.

What about Young Girls’ Menstrual Cycles?

Young girls can also be affected by male pheromones. There was a study conducted by Ellis and Garber to show that young girls start puberty earlier if the father or stepfather is in their everyday lives. Girls from single-mother households started puberty later than the girls with fathers or stepfathers. Male pheromones create early puberty in young girls and regulate mature women’s menstrual cycles. (Grammer et al. , 2004)

How Are Human Females Influenced by Human Female Pheromones?

Pheromones of women can also manipulate other women’s menstrual cycles. Women release two primer pheromones: one prior to ovulation and one after ovulation. The pheromone released prior to ovulation causes the menstrual cycle to speed up the arrival of ovulation in other women while the pheromone released after ovulation causes delay in the arrival of ovulation in otherwomen. A woman’s menstrual cycle can be synchronized with another women’s menstrual cycle by the presence of that woman. Martha McClintock and Kathleen Stern conducted a study that showed that women would synchronize their cycles with the cycles of the other women that they lived with. There were 29 women; nine women donated pheromones and the other 20 were recipients of the pheromones. In this study, gauze were placed in the donor’s armpits to obtain the samples of sweat. Placing alcohol on the gauze pads preserved the sweat samples. These gauze pads were cut into fours and frozen. The samples were then given to the 20 recipients to apply on their upper lips for four months. The recipients received two sets of samples: Oneset of samples for the first two months and the other set of samples for the second two months. (Seppa, 1998) The results were as follows:

Samples taken from donors who were in the pre-ovulation stage shortened a recipient’s monthly cycle by roughly two days. In contrast, samples taken from donors during ovulation delayed the cycles of recipients by about a day and a half. The donors, used as the control group, received an inert dab of alcohol; they showed no changes in cycle. (Seppa, 1998, p.1)

This study shows that women’s menstrual cycles do become synchronized with other women’s menstrual cycles due to pheromone cues.

Another similar study was conducted in 1980, by Russell, Switz, and Thompson. This study used 1 woman donor and 16 recipients. Eight women received the gauze with the pheromone and the alcohol. The other eight women received the gauze with only alcohol. The women dabbed their lips three times a week for four months with the gauze. The 16 recipients were not told which gauze had sweat on them. The results to this experiment are as follows: eight women became synchronized with the donor and the other eight women still had random menstrual cycles. (Johnson, 1989)

1 – Introduction to Pheromones

2 – Opposite-Sex Attraction

3 – Same-Sex Attraction

4 – Mother-Infant Bonding

5 – Menstrual Cycle Modulator

6 – Conclusion & References

Related

• Introduction to Pheromones: The Science of Smell
• Opposite-Sex Attraction: The Science of Smell
• Conclusion: The Science of Smell
• Mother-Infant Bonding: The Science of Smell
• Same-Sex Attraction: The Science of Smell
• A Means to an End
• Gender Roles and the Media

The bond between a mother and her child are much deeper than just emotional heart strings. Pheromones are exchanged in the womb, through breastfeeding, and through other means of physical contact which create a lifelong bond between mothers and their children. Both humans and nonhumans use pheromones as a means of nonverbal communication and maternal ties.

Pheromones also serve as identifiers. Mothers and children can recognize each other by the pheromones each emits.

Fawns use these pheromones to identify their mothers among the female deer in the herd. A fawn may sniff the tarsal glands (located on the insides of the knees of the rear legs) of a number of females before finding the correct one. (Johnson, 1989, p.27)

The pheromones that allow these fawns to recognize their mothers are the chemical make up that they learn while still nestled in their mothers’ womb.

Where Does the Bond Begin?

Pheromones begin their mother-infant connection before the baby is ever born. While children are in the womb, they begin recognizing their mother’s pheromones:

While hugged in the cozy, wet warmth of the womb, the fetus uses pheromones to communicate with its mother in a quiet code of chemical signals. This chemical link survives the baby’s birth so that a mother can identify her infant not only by his smell but also by his pheromones. Pheromones also help guide the infant’s mouth toward the nourishment of his mother’s breast. (Kodis, 1998, p.13)

The olfactory sends messages to the growing fetus so that by the time the baby is born, he or she has spent the past several months getting to know the mother’s pheromone chemistry.

What Role Does Breastfeeding Play?

Breastfeeding plays a major part in the passing of pheromones from mother to child. It does not take a child very long to learn and become partial to his or her mother’s pheromones. “At six days – some researchers say three days – awake babies can discriminate between their mother’s breasts and strange women based solely on their pheromones” (Kohl & Francoeur, 1995, p.78). While human babies have two breasts from which they are nursed equally, other nonhuman babies have several nipples to choose from and some will even favor one nipple over the rest. “Kittens nurse at one nipple only, having identified it by its unique scent” (Kohl & Francoeur 1995 p.79). Nonhuman babies rely so heavily on the scent of their mother’s nipples that if the scent were to change, the babies would die. “Instinctively a mother rat licks her nipples, unknowingly applying a salivary scent that guides her blind, hungry newborn to her breast and milk. Wash the nipples and the newborn pups lose their way and die of starvation” (Kohl & Francoeur, 1995, p.128). In this relationship, it is imperative that a baby can recognize his or her mother’s pheromones and that those pheromones remain the same.

Which Glands Are Involved?

Not only are the pheromones associated with breastfeeding important for a baby’s survival, breastfeeding also allows the baby to be exposed to his or her mother’s underarm pheromones. “Nursing at the breast exposes the infant to maternal pheromones from apocrine and sebaceous glands in the underarms and in the dark tissue around the nipples” (Kohl & Francoeur, 1995, p.79). These glands have secretions which make up a person’s body scent when mixed with bacteria living on the skin. “After birth, bacteria on the infant’s skin convert the adrenal androgens from the sebaceous and apocrine secretions into the characteristic body odor of newborns” (Kohl & Francoeur, 1995, p.142). Also, during pregnancy, these glands ensure that the infant fully develops.

At birth, male babies get a surge of GnRH which results in a LH surge. This is apparently triggered by exposure to the mother’s pheromones. The LH surge keeps the testes pumping out a high level of testosterone which further masculinizes the brain by destroying or altering connections between nerve cells and creating male circuits. (Kohl & Francoeur, 1995, p.96)

The pheromones secreted from these glands helps form humans internally as distinctively male or distinctively female. This is also pertinent in forming mate selectionideals.

How Do Pheromones Influence Infants?

A breastfed infant reaps more benefits than just being able to recognize his or her mother’s breast pheromones. “Breast-fed infants also recognize their mother’s underarm pheromones, while bottle-fed do not” (Kohl & Francoeur, 1995, p.78). Breastfeeding can influence what a child will look for in a mate when they are grown, as is demonstrated in this study of rats:

Fillion and Blass (1986) found that in male rats, odors associated with the mother during nursing heavily influenced sexual attraction in adulthood. These workers gave some nursing mother rats the odor of lemon while other retained their natural odors. Males that as pups had nursed the lemon-scented mothers preferred to mate with lemon-scented females. It appears that in many species, exposure to particular odors early in life produces lifelong preferences for these odors. (Hughes, 1999, p.293)

Just as the baby rats would die of starvation if their mother’s scent was changed by washing her with soap, so also their mate preference can be manipulated by solely allowing them to be familiar with the scent of lemon. But this does not apply to rats alone: “After mothers apply a perfume to their breasts before nursing for a day or two, infants between one and two weeks old appear to prefer the familiar scent” (Kohl & Francoeur, 1995, p.77). While changing the mother’s scent does not cause a human baby to starve, it does change the scent that the baby prefers.

There is a chemical known as oxytocin which, according to Michelle Kodis, is the “cuddle chemical. ” (Kodis, 1998, p.96) “When a mother hears her hungry baby cry, oxytocin intervenes, making her nipples erect and ready to pass the stream of milk so desired by the infant” (Kodis, 1998, p.96). This response ensures that the mother wants to nurse her baby as much as the baby wants her milk.

How Do Pheromones Benefit the Mother?

Pheromones are not only for the benefit of children; mothers also rely heavily on the unmistakable pheromones of their offspring. “Odors help nonhuman and human mothers bond to and identify their own infants. Human mothers, for example, regularly brush their noses into their baby’s hair so they can inhale its sweet odor as they cuddle it” (Kohl & Francoeur, 1995, p.128). In situations where all babies look alike, as in a litter of rats, pheromones indicate to a mother rat which babies are hers. “Mother rats identify their young by smell and can pick their own offspring out of another litter” (Kohl & Francouer, 1995, p.79).

Since babies are unable to care for themselves, pheromones signal to nonhuman mothers that they must take care of their babies. “After a ewe gives birth and nuzzles its newborn lamb, a chemical reward, a bonding hormone known as oxytocin, released in the mother’s brain tells her, ‘This particular lamb’s odor is important. Pay attention to it’” (Kohl & Francoeur, 1995, p.128). If it weren’t for this chemical bond, many nonhuman mothers may give birth and then go off and leave their young. It is also because of pheromones that mothers go into labor and feel the need to nurse. “Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscle of the uterus during labor and (…) facilitates milk flow during nursing” (Kodis, 1998, p.96).

How Long Can the Pheromone Bond Last?

This bond between a mother and child created by pheromones is not limited to a mother and her infant. It is a lifelong tie that cannot be broken. Below is a phenomenal story of the extent of this pheromonal bond:

A woman was visiting Oxford, England, when she found her world turned on end. She was standing by a river when a group of young male students walked by. As the boys passed, the woman had the unmistakable and instant feeling that one of these youths was the infant son she had given up for adoption only a few hours after his birth. The young man said later that he had experienced a similar visceral, gut reaction to the female “stranger” standing by the water. As he walked by, a thought flew into his brain: That’s my mother! (Kodis, 1998, pp.12-13)

The thing that makes this story even more amazing is that, according to Kodis (1998), there were no physical similarities that could have signaled to either person that the other might be related to them. It was strictly on the pheromonal bond created in the womb between this mother and her child that they recognized each other as mother and son.

The mother-infant bond produced by pheromones is one that begins in the womb and is carried out as long as both mother and child are alive. While humans do not generally readily admit the work of pheromones in their lives, not wanting to admit any animalistic characteristics, it is hard to dispute that pheromones are just as active in humans as they are in nonhumans. From an infant identifying his or her mother’s scent when only a few days old, to a youth who identifies a mother he never knew, pheromones are constantly at work within all of us.

1 – Introduction to Pheromones

2 – Opposite-Sex Attraction

3 – Same-Sex Attraction

4 – Mother-Infant Bonding

5 – Menstrual Cycle Modulator

6 – Conclusion & References

Related

• Introduction to Pheromones: The Science of Smell
• Conclusion: The Science of Smell
• Menstrual Cycle Modulator: The Science of Smell
• Opposite-Sex Attraction: The Science of Smell
• Same-Sex Attraction: The Science of Smell

Evidence supporting the biological reasoning for existence of homosexuality in the human species is growing. Even though there are still some who believe that homosexuality is a choice rather than an inborn trait, stemming either from a religious or conservative viewpoint, the recent research into pheromones has a reassuring sense about the overall biological explanation of homosexuality. Researchers continue to perform experiments on mice pheromones and organs involved in the detection of homosexual preferences, including consequent behavioral responses in mice, expanding the knowledge of human pheromones. This gives conclusive evidence to support the biological reasoning for homosexuality. The total effect of pheromones is uncertain and more research is underway, but there is enough data to support a mechanical pathway of determining the sexuality of human men. In the study of human pheromones, a chemical pathway has also been identified suggesting a train of reasoning for natural occurrences of homosexuality.

How Is This Hypothesis Being Tested

Mice have been the subjects of many studies which have been done to validate the same-sex attraction reasoning. There are many benefits to using mice as study samples: the mice are mammals with a wide array of olfactory genes coding for about 1,000 ORs and around 120 to 140 vomeronasal receptors. Mice can detect up to 100,000 compounds and there are at least six pheromones identified in the mouse urine (Buck 2004, Trinh & Storm 2004, Boschat et al. , 2002). Similarly, it is fairly easy to observe the pheromone-induced behaviors, and while in other mammals it may not always be the case, in mice the chemosensory communication is crucial to the survival and reproductive success of the animal. This means that, biologically, the protein-coding sequences of the DNA and the systems and organs used in chemosensory perception are highly conserved.

How do mice studies provide this “mechanical” and chemical insight into the existence of homosexuality in human males? There are two branches of research of mouse behavior that are of interest in respect to answering this question. Both of the branches include the VNO manipulations.

What Is the First Branch of Research?

The first branch of research involves surgical removal of the VNO at some point after maturation of the male mice. These mice have been compared with wild type mice that have undergone surgical procedure in which the VNO was not removed – known as sham surgery. In addition, the behavior of these animals has been compared to castrated mice as a way of providing a second control group since the behavior of castrated males has been studied and recorded in detail.

Pankewich, Baum, & Cherry (2004) conducted a study by comparing wild type mice with an intact VNO (labeled VNOi) and mice whose VNO has been removed (labeled VNOx). Both the control group – the wild-type mice – and the test group were put through the same surgical procedure as described above. In this study mice were tested by habituation-dishabituation tests. This involved testing the preference of males to male or female urinary odorants or the amount of time spent investigating each, and by comparing the mounting behavior of sexually experienced VNOi and VNOx towards castrated males and estrous females. Dishabituation is the term describing the initial interest in a particular odorant stimulus. Habituation is the term used when mice lose interest in that odorant after getting used to it.

VNOi and VNOx male mice were able to both detect and discriminate between the volatile urinary odors from intact males and estrous females. Thus, significant increases in investigation times (dishabituation) were seen in both groups of males during initial presentation of a urinary stimulus. Also, both groups showed significant increases in investigation times during the initial switch from male to estrous female urinary odors (or vice versa) presented outside the home cage. (Pankewich et al. , 2004, p.9453)

Similarly, once the mice were allowed to investigate the urinary odorants described above inside the cage, VNOi mice spent more time investigating the estrous female urine, while VNOx mice investigated both urine samples for equal duration of time.

A seemingly problematic section of the Pankewich et al. (2004) study is the report that both VNOi and VNOx males mount estrous females and castrated males at equal rates. But, the researchers do not go into detail in discussing their findings:

When VNOi and VNOx male mice were tested over a 1 month period with an estrous female and a castrated male (with intact male urine swabbed on the back) presented simultaneously, both groups “directed an equivalent (60-70%) percentage of their mounts toward the estrous female” (Pankewich et al. , 2004, p.9454).

Although, in this study, Pankewich et al. (2004) show interesting findings in regards to
the removal of the VNO from male mice.

In Figure 2, part C, in simultaneous presentation of urine the VNOx mice spend double the amount of time investigating intact male urine than estrous female urine (left part of the graph) when stimuli are outside the cage. Consequently, VNOx mice spend exact amount of time investigating both male and female urine while the stimulus is inside the cage.

In Figure 1, parts A, B, and C, although VNOx males spend equal amount of time investigating estrous and ovariectomized females, they spend more time than VNOi males in investigating both the castrated and intact male urines.

While this research study does prove that males with an uncompromised VNO are normal, it fails to prove that surgical manipulation of the VNO does not affect the male mice. Furthermore, while the title of the study includes that “olfactory sex discrimination persists” based on the fact that VNOx males “show no preference” for estrous females – their normal, expected results – the researchers stay conservative about implying that, according to their data, VNOx males seem to prefer investigating intact male urine to estrous female urine.

What Is the Second Branch of Research?

The second branch of research manipulates the effectiveness of the VNO by eliminating the genes for the receptors of pheromones on the DNA level. This manipulation leads us to one of the major lines of evidence as to how the functionality of the VNO affects the sexual behavior in mice. The following study shows why there should be a level of caution when examining studies on such genetically engineered specimens.

The study by Del Punta, Leinders-Zufall, Rodriguez, Jukam, Wysocki, & Ogawa, et al. (2002) attempted to genetically delete the V1R genes by chromosome engineering. The researchers tested female maternal aggression known to be dependent on the VNO, and four male behaviors including ultrasound vocaliziations, male-male aggression, male-male sexual behavior, and male-female sexual behavior. The researchers concluded:

First, mutant males have a reduced sexual drive and mutant females display a reduced level of maternal aggression. Second, their VNO exhibits specific chemosensory deficits… V1R ORF [open reading frame in DNA that codes for the gene] precludes axonal convergence to glomeruli [receiving neurons in the olfactory bulb]… As pheromones in other species often consist of blends of compounds that must be present in carefully balanced ratios to elicit distinct behaviors, the deletion of V1Ra and V1Rb gene families may produce specific avnosmias [handicaps] to certain cortical components leading to an altered representation of the blend in the brain and affecting behavior. Deletion of a V1R subset may ‘corrupt’ pheromone coding instead of blocking it. (Del Punta et al. , 2002, p.73).

The problem lies in the design of this experiment where a deletion of the gene caused unexpected results: the mutant mice were identical to the wild type in all aspects not connected to the VNO function. The mutant mice were inadequate in fully decoding the pheromonal messages.

Researchers in another study using similar techniques in genetic engineering had more success in blocking the pheromonal messaging by isolating a different protein
in the VNO neurons.

Using the tools of mouse genetics and multielectrode recording, we demonstrate that the sensory information of VNO neurons requires TRP2, a putative ion channel of the transient receptor potential family that is expressed exclusively in these neurons. (Stowers, Holy, Meister, Dulac, & Koentges, 2002. , p.1493).

The TRP2 protein is found in the microvilli of the VNO neurons, a “proposed site of pheromone sensory transduction” meaning that TRP2 plays a role in pheromone communication (Stowers et al. , 2002).

The researchers proposed that TRP2 may be the primary pathway for pheromonal signaling or it might act as a factor in additive fashion of pheromonal effect. They tested the importance of TRP2 by deleting the gene and comparing test subjects with the wild type mice.

The[se] results [of multielectrode testing] suggest that… genetic ablation of the TRP2 channel eliminates the sensory responses of VNO neurons to pheromonal cues… implying that TRP2… protein could be the primary conductance of the pheromone-evoked response, or it could act as an essential component of a multisubunit channel. (Stowers et al. , 2002, p.1495)

The same study examined mating behavior of TRP2-lacking mice. That study concludes that TRP2-lacking mice display mating behavior towards females as well as males based on their inability to discriminate between males and females due to inactivity of the VNO neurons in response to pheromone signaling. Stowers at al. (2002) effectively blocked the pheromonal pathway while not tampering with the formation of the proper neural connections between the VNO and the brain, unlike the Del Punta (et al. ) researchers.

Overall, these three mice studies show that a non-functional VNO disturbs the wild type behavior of mice, and because of a lack of correct pheromonal signaling these mice exhibit indiscriminate sexual behaviors and even show preference towards male-male interaction. Any mechanical tampering – surgical or genetic engineering – leading to a non-functional VNO or lack thereof can and usually does also lead to bi-sexual if not homosexual behavior in mice.

What Can Mice Teach Us about Human Sexuality?

As we have seen, a homosexual behavior can be induced manipulating the detection mechanism of pheromones in mice. Unfortunately, it is impossible to study pheromones in humans in the same fashion because of obvious ethical problems. Instead, researchers of the Kariolinska Institute in Sweden have isolated two chemicals proposed to be human pheromones and have conducted a study by comparing the effects of these chemicals on heterosexual men and women, and homosexual men. The data were obtained by two methods: positron emission tomography (PET) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the brain. PET is a common procedure used in medicine to detect certain diseases by scanning for tiny radioactive molecules administered to the patient intravenously. MRI is a similar procedure that scans the body with powerful magnets distinguishing among different tissues based on their density and magnetic resonance. The effects of two chemicals, previously mentioned 4, 16-androstadien-3-one (AND) a derivative of testosterone, and estra-1,3,5(10)16-tetraen-3-ol (EST) an estrogen-like steroid were compared to common odors and air. (Savic et al. , 2005)

The design of the experiment left nothing to chance. Twelve maximally gay men were compared to twelve straight women and twelve maximally straight men. Special testing was done to establish the sexuality of each test subject. Bloodwork was done each day at the same time of the day to test for levels of different hormones. The scanning was done at the same time of the day during which equal amount of time was spent smelling each of the odors. An excellent understanding of the human brain was described by researchers using several references. This description is necessary to understand the complete significance of the research. (Savic et al. , 2005) However, the two main areas of concern are the hypothalamus and olfactory cortex – regions discussed previously.

The hypothesis-based [region of interest] analysis showed that [homosexual men] processed AND congruently with [heterosexual women] rather than with [heterosexual men]… …The explorative statistical parametric mapping analysis confirmed that [heterosexual women] showed activation of the anterior hypothalamus with AND, whereas, in [heterosexual men], this area was recruited during smelling of EST. (Savic et al. , 2005, p.7359)

In retrospect, homosexual men and heterosexual women had similar responses to AND in the same way that heterosexual men responded to EST. Savic et al. point out in a previous study of effects of these chemicals on heterosexual students that they obtained similar results when students were smelling opposite sex stimuli whereas when these students smelled the same sex stimuli only the olfactory cortex of the brain was activated. (Savic-Berglund, 2004)

To explain these findings involves proposing the activation of two different pathways [of processing]: the ordinary olfactory response, which involves the olfactory tract and its usual connections, and another pathway activated by pheromones depending on the sex of the responder. (Savic-Berglund, 2004, p. 206)

The more recent study of these chemicals confirmed the researchers’ speculation about the effects of these chemicals, but not according to the sex of the test subject:

As discussed, signals form AND and EST seem to be bimodal, and primarily mediated either by the hypothalamus or by the olfactory regions. Consistent with the fact that both compounds were odorous, the conjunctional analysis showed involvement of olfactory areas even when hypothalamic pathway predominated. The major finding in the present study was that the preferred pathway in relation to the presented compound was associated with the responder’s sexual orientation (at least in men) rather than biological sex. (Savic et al, 2005, p.7359)

Dulac and Torello (2003) effectively discuss the overall significance of the combined pheromonal research in mice and humans in their discussion Box 1. They discuss the existence of key receptors (therefore genes) and organs that are involved in the detection of odors and pheromones.

Two large families of G-protein-coupled receptors that are expressed in the VNO and hypothesized to be pheromone receptors have been found in mouse and rat. However, most of the human orthologues of those genes seem to be non-functional pseudogenes… mining of the human genome['s] 200 sequences with homology to the V1R family… one has been found in the olfactory mucosa (Dulac & Torello, 2003, p.552)

Nonetheless, we have learned that the detection of olfactory stimuli is not solely ascribed to the main olfactory epithelium, and pheromones are effectively transported among individuals. However, because the human VNO doesn’t play as great a role in pheromone communication as it does in mice, the chance for a “corrupted” signaling pathway as a response to pheromones greatly increases to possibility of persistence of human homosexuality.

1 – Introduction to Pheromones

2 – Opposite-Sex Attraction

3 – Same-Sex Attraction

4 – Mother-Infant Bonding

5 – Menstrual Cycle Modulator

6 – Conclusion & References

Related

• Opposite-Sex Attraction: The Science of Smell
• Menstrual Cycle Modulator: The Science of Smell
• Introduction to Pheromones: The Science of Smell
• Conclusion: The Science of Smell
• Mother-Infant Bonding: The Science of Smell
• De-Sexing the Bonobo
• How much do college students really study?